An Emptier Future

A couple of years ago, when I was still in Tehatta and still travelling back from Krishnagar to Kolkata on the Krishnagar Local, exhaustion provided a rare insight into the condition of humanity. Specifically the number of humans we have around in the world today. As I sat on the “fourth” seat (and basically had a buttock and a half hanging off the edge), what struck me was not my discomfort but the expressions of the people around me. Some were more uncomfortable than I was – being wedged between seats waiting for one or another passenger to get up and leave. Others were jostling with vendors in the narrow aisles that separated the two sides of the train seats. The scenario in the clear area between doors was a different order of hell altogether.

But some were comfortable, having boarded the train on its way up instead of from the first station (Krishnagar) on the way down. These people, and other enterprising individuals who climbed up from the space between the train tracks because they could avoid the rush on the platform, occupied the much-coveted window seats in the direction the train was moving. Yet all of them – bar the children perhaps – had a look of exhaustion and a forlorn desire to return home.

No doubt some of this exhaustion came from the work they did. But you could tell from their sweaty bodies and their tired eyes that a good amount of it had to do with the daily trials of heckling and being heckled, jostling and being jostled, elbow-butting and being elbow-butted, in the trains and buses that made up the routes from their homes to their workplaces. They were victims of each other, and none could find a solution to the problem. Or they would have found it a long time back – and implemented it for themselves and their children, relatives, friends and near and dear ones. Which would have promptly led to overcrowding and a return to the previous state of affairs.

The problem, essentially, was that they were humans and wanted to propagate the human species, this being their primary primordial purpose in life. Every species tries to do so, and bar the pandas, never tires of doing it when the time is right. In case of humans, the time is always right, and having a child – a male child specifically – is always good news.

Naturally, we, and our parents and grandparents before us, have grown up with an overabundance of people all around us. And with them, advice on how to limit the population so we don’t end up with a ticking time bomb. The more enthusiastic ones – and I count the politicians in this class – claimed that this would also give us a “demographic dividend” i.e. a young population unburdened by too many old or young would focus on working more, earning more, saving more and investing more to spur growth of the country.

In recent years, all of this has taken a specific shape – that of a comparison with China’s population graph. Critics of the Indian experience say that China’s draconian one-child policy was responsible for their rapid strides, and India should have followed a similar approach, even when it advocated a more moderate two-child policy. Hence, while the Sanjay Gandhian sterilization drives of the Emergency period are decried, more “persuasive” measures such as barring families with too many children from benefits and government jobs (Looking at you Assam), are often supported. Whatever the means, the goal is agreed upon – reduce population growth at any cost.

We and our parents before us have grown up with this mindset. So firmly is it ingrained in our psyche that we blame everything for overcrowding – poor government spending on infrastructure, poor management, etc. – but don’t bother to tackle the fundamental question. It is a given that the government will ask the people to reduce the number of children they have, and that they will do so, but too slowly and too erratically for that to be of any immediate relief to anyone.

The government clearly, still believes in harping on this mantra. Our dear Modiji spoke of the population problem and asked people to limit the number of children people have. Yet surprisingly, the government’s own surveys have reported that the Indian population may stabilize faster than anticipated – by around 2050 – and the process may have already begun. An important sign of this was that the number of children being enrolled in the primary classes had already peaked or would peak by 2021. For a country obsessed with having less children, the inflexion point in the growth curve of primary enrolments should have been greeted with a drumroll. In effect, it was all but ignored by all except those working on population and education policy.

But the stagnation in primary enrolment is only the tip of the iceberg. All over the world, populations are stabilizing faster than had been anticipated at the turn of the century. Not just developed countries like Singapore (0.92 births/per female), South Korea (1.12 births/female) and Japan (1.43 births/female), even developing countries like Thailand (1.44 births/female) are facing the prospect of a stabilizing population. China, the panda in the room, has a fertility rate of 1.8 per female. Even this is disputed by some demographers as spurious since China’s own Department of Statistics found the actual figure around 1.2. Given the size of China’s population, a difference of 0.6 would be huge. Even if the truth is somewhere between the two figures, what is clear is that China will stabilize faster than anticipated.

The funny thing is, none of this is bringing any cheer to any of these countries. Countries like Thailand, which gave the world Mr. Condom in the 1970s, are far from enthused by the prospect of population growth coming to a halt, and even a decline setting in. The reasons are not far to seek. Firstly, a population that ceases to grow means that the demographic dividend phase is definitely over. The number of old people on assisted living, with pensions and state benefits, is increasing and the number of working age people who can support them – not just personally as sons and daughters but as taxpayers funding the welfare state – is decreasing. At the same time, the number of youth entering the job market is also declining, which means less young people supporting more old people. This puts greater strains on the incomes of the working age population, which in turn means less investment and lowered standard of living. All of this does not bode well for the development of a country still counted as upper middle income by the World Bank and developing by the UN and other major bodies.

Another problem is related to sex ratio i.e. the number of women per 1000 men. In many countries currently witnessing a rapid decline in fertility rate, such as China, Thailand, Vietnam and even India, there is a strong preference for sons. China’s one child policy produced far more sons than daughters and has left millions of men with no prospect of finding a match. These “left behind” men are not good news for society, mainly because their pent-up social and sexual angst is likely to express itself in anti-social and anti-women behavior, which itself is normalized in the patriarchal societies of South and East Asia.

Thirdly, there is the problem of infrastructure. Capitalism presumes a basic expansion of the economy. When it doesn’t – as it cyclically does – recession or depression set in. But this phase is temporary because sooner or later, economic conditions and stimuli ensure that expansion continues. In the meantime, population has grown too. This means more investment in trains, buses, subways, highways, ports, etc. etc. All of this provides a major engine of growth to the economy, which in turn brings in investment and creates jobs for the youth. If population stops growing, there are less youth to take up the jobs but more importantly, such expansion of infrastructure is not fundamentally required. Sure, maintenance of ageing infrastructure would require some amount of investment and jobs. But as the US shows, maintenance can be spotty and expansion is not guaranteed even with moderate population expansion. You could argue that the developing countries would reach the US level of infrastructure at a much later date and hence may keep investing in infrastructure with imported labour for the existing citizens. But this begs the question – most of the investment is done by the state, and if the state is unable to generate more and more revenue through taxation because economic activity is slowing as a result of a lower workforce, where would the money come from ?

The effects of this are visible starkly in many parts of the world, but most starkly in the former Soviet puppets of Eastern Europe and in China. Following the collapse of the Iron Curtain, people fled the economic hardships of these countries to seek a better life in Western Europe or in the Americas. Population growth was severely impacted and in many countries such as Poland, Romania and Hungary, the effects have ensured that these countries will never again reach the pre-1990 levels of fecundity. Here, Soviet era apartment blocks, factories and other infrastructure gradually rust in neglect, no one willing to live there.

In China, expectations of population growth and continuing economic growth fueled a building boom funded heavily by debt. Many of them now sit empty and lifeless. Buyers don’t exist, and in many cases, the governments have had to cut back on supply of auxiliary services to these building complexes as the economic outlook worsens on the back of demographic stagnation and a trade war with the US.

If these stories are new, in South Korea and Japan, they are pretty old. Japan has many train stations which have only one train running – often empty – in the day. These used to be bustling suburbs but now are home to elderly people, with caregivers and tourists being the major travelers to and from these areas. In South Korea, schools lie empty as villages no longer have children to send to them. The children that are born are sent to better staffed and better served schools. Many of these schools have been closed down.

I know what you are thinking – how is all of this possible in India ? Here, the endless refrain is that schools be expanded and education be brought to the doorsteps of disadvantaged and often poorly literate sections. It is rather jarring then to read a government report recommending “consolidation” of government schools in order to accommodate the reality of a stagnating primary enrolment and the very real fact that many rural schools sit empty despite having teachers and infrastructure.

Yet in a country as large as India, nothing can be generalized so easily. There are regions like Bihar, UP, MP, Rajasthan and Haryana, which have been witnessing still high rates of birth. Bihar leads the country with a fertility rate of 3.3, which is on par only with some of the more backward Central Asian, West Asian and African countries. Virtually the whole of the Americas, Europe and East Asia is better off.

But look beyond BIMARU, and the picture looks rather different. Sikkim has the lowest fertility rate in the country at around 1.2. West Bengal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Punjab also stand in this low category with a range of 1.6 to 2, all of which are below the replacement rate of 2.1 births per female. In other words, while these states have fertility rates approaching or surpassing European and East Asian states, BIMARU and adjoining states have fertility rates approaching the poorest parts of the world. This imbalance has serious implications.

Firstly, there is a direct correlation between the development level of a state and its fertility rate. It is not surprising that states like Sikkim and Kerala have some of the best development metrics such as child care, literacy level, maternity services, etc. while Bihar is the absolute worst. What this means is that as the years roll by, the more educated and more prosperous people from the advanced provinces will decline in number while those from the less developed and more populous provinces will increase. In a homogenous country, such a transition may have occurred with little social impact. However, India being rich in diversity and even richer in its appetite for controversy around identity, this will have deep social and political repercussions. Already, regions which have historically been open to migrants are becoming more xenophobic, West Bengal being a case in point. Fears of cultural decline associated with decline in numbers, once a bhadralok staple, are now voiced in the open and become poll agendas.

It also means that we will get more poorly educated and unemployable youth than we get now. Already, surveys by UN bodies warn that Indians will increasingly lack the skills needed to give them employment at a level commensurate with sustenance requirements. This in turn, will lead to demands for regional reservation of jobs, which is already rearing its ugly head in Andhra Pradesh. Further, poorly trained people, as and when they get jobs, will enter the economy at lower levels and not find enough opportunities to skill up and rise on the economic ladder. This will not only stagnate the economy but also build up bitter anger. As movements from the JP movement onwards has shown, the wrath of the youth is something no government has the appetite to face.

Finally, there is the little matter of the most backward areas being also the most patriarchal. An exact correlation may not exist, but it is no secret that Kerala has the highest sex ratio in the country, with Sikkim not far behind. Punjab may be an outlier, but the situation is still better than in poorer Haryana, UP, MP and Rajasthan. What this means is the number of females available for a certain generation of males will decline. As the customary tendencies to marry of daughters declines and women increasingly choose their own matches or choose to stay single, it will be harder for low-skilled, low-earning men from patriarchal backgrounds (who typically lack sufficient social skills as well), to find brides. The situation will be similar to the Chinese scenario, but immensely complicated by the permissive attitude of the state towards a range of crimes against women, and the cultural differences that stand as deep gulfs between men and women of different castes, communities, regions, etc. etc. Expect a rise in crimes against women, as well as toxic masculinity arising from unfulfilled conjugal expectations.

And while we are on the topic of society and culture, let’s not forget that these backward states are also the hotbeds of Hindutva and the Hindi movement. With little capacity building for other languages in these states, the youth are almost completely dependent on the success of the Hindi movement to find jobs and maintain social standing in areas outside the core Hindi heartland. This movement can be expected to speed up as the pressure of youth in these backward areas increases even as the numbers of youth in the non-Hindi, better-off areas declines relatively. There is as yet little research on the correlation between the relative changes in demographic balance with the changing social currents and the growing preference for Hindutva among the populace of the country. And any change that takes place will have to be very gradual, since cultural mores are so deep set that percentage shifts in graphs do not immediately alter social proclivities. But the relative demographic dominance of the Hindi and Hindutva heartland is a fact that has to be faced, and states will have to figure out how to limit the impact of these ideologies without giving into regional chauvinism that threatens to weaken the foundations of the Indian Union.

All said, the future will be emptier. Emptier in terms of the seats in schools, the number of schools bustling with children, the number of offices with young employees and perhaps – and bear with me here – emptier local train compartments. The latter will also have more older people who are forced to work longer because they cannot be supported sufficiently in the old age by their children and/or the state. The compartments will also have more Hindi speaking people, who would have difficulty speaking other languages because of plain arrogance and a social education that never tried to integrate the languages of India beyond Hindi. The compartments will also have more men and less women. More and more of the men will be Hindi speaking with repressed desires. And above all, perhaps there will be lesser local trains, running at greater intervals, with less stoppages and lesser number of platforms. Will a day come when some of the bustling stations of today would have become old age homes, with nary a passenger boarding or alighting from a local that would run only a few times a day? Will we – the Generation X of the late years of the 20th Century – live to see this come about, or will our children, now babes in arms, inherit what seems like a dream today? And will this society be a good one to live in, better than that of today, where the tired and forlorn faces are replaced by something more promising? Those tired and forlorn faces will not have the answer, but it is time they found out what is in store for their children.  

Sending Coal to Newcastle to “correct” colonial injustice

If there has been a major buzzword in the 19th and 20th Centuries, it has been “self-determination”. Roughly, it means that if you are a group of people, then you have the right to figure out and do what is right by your book, on and with everything that you own. Or claim to. This has traditionally been pitted against the old monarchical state systems which did not allow for democratic self-determination. But nowadays, it is far more, shall we say fashionable (?), to talk of self-determination against colonial actions and historic injustices. And here, it’s not enough to get back the country your ancestors gave up (or some of them did anyway), it means you have to take back everything the colonizers took from them too.

This is in many ways, the logical next step after independence has been won. As long as there were countries actively fighting for decolonization of their countries, very few gave a rat’s ass about their artefacts. Their lands, their resources and their rights were more important. But that stage is largely over. Barring some groups on the extreme right (and even then, the old fashioned imperialist and not the newer neo-fascist right), very few in the formerly imperialist countries make any claims to the countries they once held. France may send some troops to its former colony of Mali and be willing to have special relationships with others, but that’s about as far as any country goes.

Instead, you find them increasingly leaning to the opposite pole – actively demanding that everything be decolonized. The European willingness to bend over backwards where once they possessed iron spines can partially be explained by the presence of large and vocal minorities. These minorities have traditionally come from the countries which the Europeans had colonized. The development of a diasporic identity rested to a large extent on the development of their respective nationalist movements in their home countries, and as such, was closely linked to them.

At the same time, these diasporic groups also wanted to find a larger voice, which would give them a space within the country and society in which they lived. Imperial European societies – just like the colonized minority diasporas – could and did copy and paste the same set of prejudices that their colonial counterparts did to the natives of the colonized countries. For instance, an Indian living in late 19th Century London could expect to face the same set of prejudices that an Indian would face in Calcutta. They may be even more extreme since the Englishman in India would always temper his expressions in view of the small minority status of the British in India in social terms. In England on the other hand, there was no such need to hold back one’s feelings. Racism and imperial arrogance lost their nuance when they no longer had to live within the pragmatism of colonialism itself.

One may even say that the transmission and amplification of prejudices fueled the growth of a search for an identity within and against the metropolitan societies of Europe among the native diasporas originating in Asia and Africa. This was very much within the interests of the nationalist leaders of these countries, since this allowed them to have a vocal group permanently resident in the colonizing country, that would speak for the colonized, even when say, the leaders themselves were sitting in shackles in some hot Bareilly jail.

With the coming of decolonization however, this logic no longer worked and was no longer necessary. Very few, if any, of the diaspora, wanted to go back to their countries simply because it had become independent. Rather, more and more people from these countries came to the European shores, giving rise to the pithy expression – “The British left India, only to find India at her doorstep.”

These, along with earlier groups of immigrants, could be transient in that they came for a good education or skills and went back when these had been acquired. They usually took up cushy positions in their home countries, and bolstered them using the contacts and clout they had acquired while living in a London or Paris. Very many, however, came to these countries as poor and middle class labour, who may possess some skills but had not come to hone them. They had come for jobs, and had come to stay.

As their numbers grew, the nationalist leaders – now ensconced in power – sought to use them to further their national causes. These could be appeals for further aid, or against some group within the former colonial countries themselves, or against foreign aggression (the Palestinians are well known for raising a hue and cry whenever they find Israel up to something, the Jews reciprocate in the same coin and lately, have been finding themselves more successful than their Arab counterparts in European capitals.)

Yet not every national cause could fire up the diaspora like the old nationalist struggle could. Sure, a cry of la patrie en danger stirred up sufficient emotions to bring out a sizable crowd, but not everything could be a call to defense of the mother/fatherland. Furthermore, with the decline of the actual political conflicts (or at least the colonial element in these conflicts), focus shifted to “soft power” i.e. the ability of the diaspora to influence the culture, society and labour markets of the metropolitan capitals.

It is to this point that we may trace the question of the repatriation of artefacts looted by the former colonial masters. Heritage of a country forms an important part of the cultural toolset of the nationalist’s call to action, and when part of that heritage is sitting in colonial capitals, far away from the eyes and the hearts of the formerly colonized, it makes sense to end these vestiges of colonial policy and bring the artefacts back to the people who actually produced them. And to whom they belong. Because if the Africans and Asians cannot self-determine where their artefacts and national treasures would go, their sovereignty cannot be called complete. Or so the argument goes.

Even as the former colonies and their diaspora began to campaign for recognition of the fact that the artefacts sitting in European and American museums were in many cases looted or gifted under duress, the Europeans and Americans themselves were becoming increasingly aware of their duties to their former colonies. This was both a result of the campaigning itself, and of intellectual currents within the European society that acknowledged their use of force in the past and sought to make amends. This dovetailed with the need to appear “woke” to countries that may be vital allies and useful markets/factories for their own societies. Hence, where on one side flowed profuse apologies by European and American leaders of wrongs long rendered irrelevant except in memory, there were active demands for repatriation of artefacts on the other.

It should be noted here that while an element of force was always involved in colonialism, it did not mean that every colonial artefact brought by some European from some non-European nation was taken at gunpoint. In many cases – including in the case of the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond, the artefacts in question were actually gifted by royals and others who owned them. Many of these royals now live in Europe itself, and even if they don’t, they aren’t particularly interested in getting these treasures back because they are acutely aware of the fact that whatever the context, a gift is a gift.

In other cases, looting did take place but the ones who were looted – such as the various extinct lineages of Africa or India – can no longer get back what they lost because they no longer exist. Demands for repatriation are made by the respective nations on grounds of national heritage, but it is far from clear what rights a modern nation has on things which can be of a very personal nature.

But, for the sake of simplicity, let us take cases where there was actual looting of items which had symbolic and ritual significance and were very much public and important. Let’s talk, for instance, of the Benin Bronzes. Without going into the complex history of the scramble for Africa, suffice it to say that during the late 19th Century, a punitive expedition of British soldiers and colonialists went to Benin and stripped its royal palace of anything of value. These items included bronze figurines called the Benin Bronzes, which today can be found in numerous European and American museums of repute. It has been argued that the bronzes were of great ritual significance and would never have been given up except under extreme pressure. Hence, it may well be called a despoliation of the country and the bronzes need to be returned.

Scholars and curators who concur with this – and there are a great many who do – have a major problem, however. To whom must the bronzes go ? The Royal Palace of Benin and the Nigerian government are separate entities, and whose claim is to be respected for something that was taken in completely different circumstances ?

But my argument here would be somewhat more fundamental. I would argue that as long as there is someone who is wiling to take up the task of harping on about cultural heritage and colonial despoliation, s/he would manage to persuade some or the other museum or historical society to return such artefacts to that someone or someone else. But should they be returned at all?

Here, let’s get the question of emptying of colonial museums out of the way. When arguments are being made on grounds of national heritage and shared memory of former injustice, empty museum shelves would scarcely put up a major defense of the status quo. This especially when a new, “woke” generation considers all things colonial to be anathema.

But more fundamentally, can we ask whether the countries demanding repatriation have any strong grounds for such demands ? Cultural heritage might sound ferocious on paper, but it is a paper tiger. Each country has numerous tangible and intangible artefacts, buildings and memories which can and are mobilized by the leaders as per convenience. Hence, while one group might eulogize Tipu Sultan for being the last fighting bastion against the British in all except parts of Central and North West India, others might ignore or openly attack him and artefacts related to him because he was a Muslim ruler whose father had usurped power from a Hindu ruler and who was supposedly not fair in his attitude towards the Hindus.

No better example of this can be seen than the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. While the Masjid itself had never been the epitome of Mughal architecture, it was historically important and worthy of conservation. Instead, it was demolished under the pretext of there being a Ram temple underneath. Under such circumstances, what is the guarantee that a Koh I Noor or a tiger figurine belonging to Tipu won’t be similarly destroyed or at least defaced by those who find something objectionable in the legacy involved ?

Move outside India and the damage done to archaeological sites such as Palmyra by ISIS or Bamian by the Taliban clearly shows that third-world countries are oftentimes not equipped or do not give enough importance to their heritage to save it from motivated groups of iconoclasts. Heritage itself is charged with social meaning – as it was in the earlier periods when it was linked to the religion to which it belonged, and not considered part of the common heritage of all. As such, every change of government and every crisis runs the risk of another Bamian or Palmyra.

But let’s say the legacy in question is not disputed and will probably not be disputed such as in case of the Benin bronzes. Even then, countries demanding their return aren’t exactly the best equipped to house and maintain their treasures. It is true that disasters such as the fire in the Brazilian museum and that at Notre Dame show that nature does not discriminate. Yet it is very much true that museums across the poorer parts of the world are badly financed and in worse shape as each year goes by. In many cases, the visitors themselves amuse themselves by damaging the artefacts, as was seen in Hampi earlier this year. Given that Nigeria is no better than India in its record of conservation, what guarantee is there that a repatriated Benin Bronze will not be lying on its size, cracked and rusting, with some lovers’ initials painted on them for sake of a few selfies?

But there are even more fundamental reasons for not repatriating these cultural treasures. Firstly, treasures aren’t meant to be hoarded in the way the kings of yore did in their palaces. It is not for the enjoyment of a few, but the education of all. Having cultural treasures of a civilization spread all over the world allows young minds access to different civilizations. Even in the age of digital media and 1:1 modeling, the sense of historical gravity felt when viewing the real thing cannot be replicated. Hence, a country should actively try to ensure that its treasures are on display in as many responsible and historically sensible countries as possible, so its citizens may know what the country’s culture looked like.

Demanding that the treasures be returned flies in the face of this logic. Not many would want to hop across Africa to view the individual museums where they would be housed. Hence, the increase in revenue arising out of such repatriation would not make up for the loss in viewership and study in the countries where the treasures now reside, and which are infinitely easier to reach even if you are not a EU or American citizen.

Now it has to be submitted that ideally, the countries from whom the artefacts were taken would discuss their retention or repatriation as equal partners. What would be retained would be retained only with the express consent of the original owners. But we have seen the complications that arise when original owners are sought out. Further, the sense of partisan nationalism prevailing in many third world countries would probably lead politicians to demand repatriation regardless of historical justification simply so they can earn brownie points in their respective countries. If such are the facts of the case, it makes sense to consider the actual question of who and how much access the people of the world would have to a certain artefact when discussing the question of repatriation.

Secondly, it is not as if the proverbial Newcastle-upon-Tyne of Nigeria or India no longer have coal. Much that was excavated by the British in India, in Greece or in Nigeria, remains there to this day. In the Indian case, the British pretty much set up archaeology and told us how to take care of our heritage. We – and other countries – can always add to our collections by funding archaeological efforts and encouraging people to take up archaeology and museology as professions if we want additional eyeballs and additional tourist revenue.

Countries can pump this revenue into museums and archaeological efforts so they don’t suffer a repeat of the accidental Brazilian brainwash of history in fire. Emptying out the shelves of a museum in London to fill one in Delhi or Kolkata simply doesn’t serve any purpose except to swell the chests of nationalists. And nationalistic jingoism of tomorrow can easily destory what the jingoism of today brought back from Britain or America.

We can conclude on the note that if colonialism is a historical wrong, then repatriation of artefacts isn’t the means of correcting it. Not only would it lead to endless controversies over what, when and who should receive the greatest attention and ownership, it will also deprive the people of Europe, America and even Asia and Africa from seeing artefacts collected from the world over in a single place. Let such viewers be told what the true provenance of these artefacts are, and how and why they cannot be returned. Let them understand the complex reasons why artefacts need to be preserved for their historical value, and not because they serve the purpose of bringing in additional revenue or add laurels to some nationalist’s hat. Let them understand that heritage of humans – and we mean all humans – is shared and the more dispersed it is, the more we can fight the prejudices and particularities that divide the world up into imaginary compartments. In sum then, let artefacts educate all so that all can take better care of all artefacts and the common heritage of humankind.

The Tenacity of Plastics in the Mofussil

Years ago, when I was just completing my graduation, I was required to submit a survey project on environmental science. Back in those days – and I suspect till today – the modus operandi of such projects used to be a simple copy and paste with some fudging of data. Sadly, I chose the longer path of actually carrying out a survey in my area. The municipal councilor of the area had recently banned the use of single-use plastics (polythenes) and I felt confident that this would be an ideal survey topic. People would be highly discomfited by the withdrawal of polythenes and would say so, thus providing an interesting set of data. Over two weeks and countless questionnaires, though, I realized that most people were in fact, supportive of the ban as long as it was on record. Even off record, i.e. when the questionnaire was complete and the discussion veered into freewheeling territory, their arguments remained firmly anti-plastic. It was surprising to learn how educated many ordinary people were regarding the ill-effects of plastic and how they affect the environment. Many even suggested alternatives which we’d read of in our books – jute bags, paper bags, etc etc.

My project was complete, the data set providing a textbook example of an educated set of people who were willing to sacrifice their convenience for the environment. I don’t think all this effort brought me more marks than the average copycat, but it did leave in me an impression that environmental education had reached a point where administrative efforts would be supported instead of being ignored as is the norm in India. I also told myself that I was being overoptimistic, and that it was impossible that people would have changed so much. They were probably just wondering where this questionnaire would end up, and therefore were being highly circumspect with their answers. Yet I could not deny that they knew a lot of about the environmental effects of plastic, and support or no support, understood what the ban was for.

Three years later, I would be sent on my first substantial job to Tehatta (I made a whole series of articles on Tehatta about two years back). First impressions suggested that the people there would be less aware of the ill effects of plastic. After all, plastics were cheaper, and who had the time and energy to source bio-degradable stuff at higher cost when their lives revolved around getting the maximum amount of work done to be able to afford a decent living ?

Strangely, the NSS activities of the college proved otherwise. As part of the NSS camps, we sent students into the surrounding villages (basically the areas from where they themselves came) and asked them to carry out surveys. Despite the obvious observer bias inherent in this method, we found the students and their respondents were also remarkably well aware of the risks that plastic posed. We received detailed information listing out the various ill effects of plastic, including the accumulation of plastic in the local Jalangi river and other sources of water. The variety of responses told us that the people were acutely aware of the menace of plastic insofar as their daily lives were concerned.

This was refreshing, because unlike the respondents of my Honours survey, these weren’t textbook answers. Rather, they pointed out specific local problems and suggested specific local remedies. You simply couldn’t find such answers in any textbook, and given the education level of a good number of respondents wasn’t above high school, you knew these people hadn’t simply read or heard of these solutions somewhere. Long story short, my impression about city folk being aware of the risks of plastic was now extended to the people of the villages as well. Sample size of one region notwithstanding, I was informed that environmental awareness was now a general aspect of people’s knowledge.

The strange thing though, was that this knowledge and awareness didn’t translate into any sort of actual action beyond what was required of them by the questionnaires and regular environmental drives. Sure, they would clean up the campus and surrounding areas. But then they themselves would litter those areas again as they’d been doing since the advent of plastic. When quizzed about this quixotic behaviour, their simply reply was that they’d clean it up again, or that it didn’t matter much.

The standard explanation under such circumstances from the educated classes (and you get a hell lot of such responses as soon as you broach the topic over a coffee table tete-a-tete) was that these people had been taught only to respect the law and not to imbibe its spirit. They knew the law could punish them, and so they simply obeyed. What they were required to know, they knew, but what they were required to understand and realize, they did not. Further, given that the impetus for such efforts typically came from city-dwelling or city-minded higher administrative corps, it was not really surprising that the top-down approach resulted in a high-handed but superficial application that showed a few results and then disappeared. All of these explanations would end with a sharp critique of the ruling dispensation and how it was not doing enough for the environment.

After a certain point of time, you realized that these explanations were ones that the city folk needed for their own mental peace, rather than ones that actually brought about change, or explained the lack thereof. This was especially valid since the city folk themselves were often found to be less inclined to litter, or more inclined to not use plastic, than their village counterparts. This was partly due to their financial conditions allowing for the use of alternatives which often cost more than plastics. Further, the city had greater availability of alternatives as opposed to villages.

But what was happening in the villages ? This question returned to my mind during my recently concluded election duty. I was posted on the outskirts of the city, along a nice stretch of the riverfront. This area could best be described as the suburbs, rather than the city proper or the village. The people who lived there were in close proximity to both the villages and the city itself. Yet their actions and behaviour was more in tune with what their village counterparts thought and did rather than what the city folk would do.

The point was driven home by the curious use of plastics for packing food. Us city folk are used to bemoaning the multiple layers of plastic packaging surrounding processed foods like biscuits, etc. Yet when foods come in plastic containers, we don’t bat an eyelid. The argument goes that these containers aren’t strictly single-use since they can be used again. Plus, many of them lay claim to being eco-friendly in some respect.

Not so with the polythenes in which our food came. One plastic bag contained rice, another contained the dal and one more contained the mashed potato (alu vaate) and another the egg curry. Each of these plastics belonged to the much-vilified polythene category i.e. they were simple carry bags which had been tied carefully to ensure the food inside did not come out. Given the excess of water in Bengali cuisine, this was all the more necessary since these carry bags (the colloquial term for polythene bags) were often carried in larger shopping bags for transportation and unceremoniously dumped on the floor at their destination. Anyone who wished to eat would have to pick up the respective bags, pair them with a thermocol (or plastic) plate and head off to a moderately clean and quiet place to eat.

As someone who’d had such meals (the local term, not my own usage) I wasn’t surprised or discomfited by this overtly rough-and-ready way of providing and consuming food. Many a times the food which came to our college at lunchtime would be similarly packed. If the person for whom it was meant had a plate (stored in his locker), then the plastic plate would simply be taken back by the supplier. Otherwise the plastic plate would be used and thrown away along with the carry bags. Since none of my polling part companions had been minded to bring along steel cutlery with them, the only option was to use those plates. There’s a specific method for having food on these plates, unless you want dal and rice all over yourself and nothing in your stomach. You first held the plate down with a full glass of water, then carefully poured out the rice. Then you made a crater in the centre of the rice to pour out the dal. You then have as much rice as possible with the dal, before opening out the remaining bags and proceeding as before. In the end, you dump the empty packets and glass on the plate and throw them away.

You may well ask why I bothered to explain the process in detail ? After all, it isn’t exactly rocket science, and is fairly well known by almost everyone outside the core of the city itself. The reason is simple – at each stage, you have to use the properties of plastics to ensure things to flow when they shouldn’t and do flow when they should. Take for example, the fact that you have to transport liquids without spilling them on cycles through bumpy roads and up equally bumpy stairs. Any spillage would spoil the outer bag and also discolour the place where they’re kept before being consumed. Equally importantly, nothing should be able to go in and adulterate the food, since that would create a health hazard.

Then again, you have to be absolutely sure that the stuff doesn’t leak onto the plate before you want it to flow out. If that happens, you may well end up with dal-ified egg curry or some other frankenstein’s monster, whose taste would be the LCM of the already rather debatable taste of the individual parts. Finally, you want the stuff to flow well, and not get stuck in the bag itself when you’re pouring it out onto the plate. Spoons and other scraping materials are almost never included (unless it’s Chinese, and no one has Chinese for lunch or dinner), and scraping off dal and curry from the inside of the packet is an irritating waste of time.

Ergo, you need something that needs to be spill proof, water proof but also easily openable and pourable. Plastics alone have all these qualities, and polythene bags tend to be the cheapest of them all. In fact, polythene bags have two additional qualities as well – they are highly stretchable but also tearable. You just know how much force you have to apply to a bag to be able to stretch it to perhaps tie it well, and how much you need to tear a gaping hole in it. Other plastics, especially the denser variants, would need inordinately high force, and even then they may tear suddenly.

Given these qualities, it is not surprising that plastics are used in a large variety of food-related applications, from carrying meal components to even juice and tea. There was one instance when we got a large poly bag full of steaming tea, and had to pour it out into different plastic cups before we could have it. This tea itself had been poured from a large thermos which the owner could not spare because it was needed in another polling booth.

This brings us back to the question, where does the ordinary person in the mofussil stand on the question of the ill effects of plastic ? Given what I have seen and heard, it may be said that they are fairly aware of the risks posed, but not cognizant with how these risks translate from their own use of plastics. We are accustomed to seeing huge piles of plastic being recovered from bodies of whales. On the other hand, the actual amounts of plastic in any village or mofussil area would be only a fraction of the kilograms recovered from whales. We know that such small amounts eventually accumulate into the huge amounts but do they realize it ?

Let’s for a moment assume that they do. At least, let’s assume that the younger generation does. What then ? They have few alternatives, since the most common alternative – the paper bag or the thonga, has far too many problems, leaking being not the least of them. Others, such as jute bags, work only when the products being carried are somewhat costly, eg. Sarees. Plus, they again fail the leaking dal test.

This isn’t to say that plastics are used everywhere. In fact, the average villager would only use plastics when they’re on the move. Even then, instead of buying meals, they’d prefer to sit down at some hotel and eat from a hard plastic or metal plate. They’d prefer to have tea in the more durable burnt clay bhnar than in a plastic cup. At home, they’d be using durable stuff, which would include stuff made of harder and durable plastic, metal and glass, but almost never the thin polythene stuff.

Given this, the polythene challenge gets limited to the question of transporting stuff, especially leaky foodstuffs, using the rickety infrastructure that is the norm in mofussil areas. Neither paper, nor jute, nor any of the rather fancy alternatives that people tend to champion from time to time, will work here. Costs, availability and product features (such as non-leakage) will all work against such elite options. Something would need to be found that can transport meals, tea and snacks without making a mess at any point.

I believe that that something would have to arise from the mofussil areas themselves, or at least their usage would have to. Remember that the usage of polythene bags for transporting food was never a feature of the West, nor is it found in the big cities. Rather, it was how a product was adapted by the mofussil areas. Similarly, an existing or new product would have to be adapted (or even better, discovered) in these areas for it to begin replacing polybags.

Until then, all the educational drives, the NSS workshops and questionnaires will remain just paper tigers, satisfying the egos of babus and NGO workers but failing to address the basic requirements of those towards whom they are targeted.

La bêtise des choix simple

Dans le semaine dernière, le premier ministre de royaume-uni place son accord avant le Parlement pour le troisième fois. Les membres de Parlement souhaitent que ce accord échouerait. Et ça arrive. Les membres de Parlement et le premier ministre semblent comme le tour de Babel. Un homme ne comprendre pas le mots ou de voeux du reste. Le premier ne peut pas comprendre les instructions simple de L’union Européenne ou sa nation.

Ce nœud apportons-nous à la question – comment apportons-nous ici ? Un explication simple est que le premier est fou, que sa « lignes rouges » été pas pratique et sa oreilles étaient sourdes à tout suggestions. Mais je pense la maladie est plus de mal, et va plus loin. Si nous revenons a le « référendum » de 2016 an, c’est claire que le choix été plus de simple. Voulez-vous vivrez dans le suffocation de L’union Européenne ou voulez-vous la liberté de choisir votre trajet sans imposition de UE ?

Un choix simple peut apporte un accord plus de simple. « Brexit » peut etre simple. Alors comment nous apportons ce situation complexe ? Il n’est suffit de dire pas que le premier est un leader mal. Elle devenu le premier ministre après le choix de brexit et sa travail été trouver un accord avec michel barnier. Elle a échoué. Mais le décision pour le referendum de brexit n’etait pas sa decision. Sa échec est dans le execution de brexit. Mais qu’en est-il de referendum et le choix dans ca ?

Les choix du brexit ete simple, et c’etait la probleme avec ca. Un probleme plus de complex devient un choix binaire et un guerre de propagande arrive. Cette result est que plus de hommes ou femmes fait un choix que ces saisies très peu. Il y a peu de bien en dire que le nation de Royaume-Uni fait un choix mal ou ils ont été mal informés. L’erreur était dans le choix, et n’est pas dans le peuple que fait de choix. Quoi est mal avec un choix simple ?

Les problèmes de monde moderne sont plus de complexe – c’est clair. Mais un choix ne peut pas complexé, car les peuples exigent un choix simple. Un choix simple permet des hommes propagandistes à offer grand des esperances. Les hommes politiques sont hommes propagandistes, et ils choisissent ce que seront les choix. Si les peuples exigent un choix simple et les politiques profitee d’un tel choix, devons-nous obtenir plus de Brexits et de chaos ces devenaient ?

Une bonne parallèle avec le partition indienne peut être fait. Du législatifs que ont decidee que quelque etats du pays de indienne peut devenir des parties de Pakistan eu un probleme similaire a Brexit. Les peuples que élu ses representants eu un choix similaire a les peuples britanniques sur Brexit. Jusqu’a 1940 an, le question de partition était une question hypothétique. Mais dans le deuxième guerre de monde, ce question devient réel. Plus de espérances fantastiques ont été offerts, et les peuples musulmans ont ecoute. Quand le temps de voter venu, ces elu les Ligue de Muslim et faitent le partition certain.

Aurait-il pu être différent ? Oui, si les peuples eu plus de temps à décider ses futures. Les peuples faitent décisions moderees si ces apprendrez encore plus. L’effet de propaganda diminuée plus de temps passé. Si le britannique annonce la décision de partition un décade avant le vote, les peuples pourraient choisir un choix différente.

Mais plus de temps n’est suffisant de condition. L’information que le peuples reçoivent est important. Il est clair que un vote que n’a pas propaganda est un impossibilite. Mais le gouvernement et le société civile peuvent offrir information precise a les peuples avant le vote. Les officieux britanniques supporte les hommes communales en ses propaganda. Si a la place, ses avait offert clair solutions dans le question de partition avec statistiques officielle, les résultants peuvent étaient plus de différentes.

Le troisième problème est que les émotions deviennent incontrôlable. Après un certain temps, les statistiques et explications rationnelles deviennent inutile pour les hommes quand ses pensent ses identite est en dangere. Un vote de partition peut devenir un vote de identité musulman et un devoir à la religion islam. Les imams et sufis parlent ca, et les hommes et femmes musulmans faitent représentatifs qu’était musulmans réel. Ces hommes naturellement vote pour le partition.

Les methodes pour combattre le influence de l’idéologie sont diverse. Un education seculaire est un solution. L’administration peut utiliser des méthodes que diminuee l’influence des imams et créent un milieu secular. Nous peut saisir que les britanniques utilise des catégories religieux et transforme le société indienne. Ces méthodes n’est pas peut appliquer en un ans ou deux, mais demande plusieurs décennies. Je dis notre problemes communales de siècle XXIe commence dans le politiques de la période britannique.

Ces education peut etre s’appliqué a brexit. Un choix complex devient un choix simple et la nation a peu de temps de décider. Un discussion de longtemps avec statistiques et informations exactes pourrait avoir fournir un choix éclairé. En place deuxieme, les propagandes pour et contre Brexit aurait pu être surveillé. Le gouvernement aurait pu offrir information relatifs à la situation maintenant et le situation attendu le futur. Ce information aurait pu neutre, alors que le peuples aurait pourraient prendre un décision suffisamment éclairée.

Dans le place dernier, le rôle de ideologie peut etre examinee. Le ideologie – le logic derriere brexit – est un consideration que les île de britannique est especial. Tout liens avec UE peut être un attaque sur la liberté de Royaume-Uni. J’ai discuste que l’idéologie de Brexit existe en vide, detache de la realite. Il est le fruit de plus de deciennes de croyance en le “bien colonialisme” : une colonialisme qui existe car le caractère anglais est unique. Le decolonization sans les guerres sanglantes reinforcee cette notion. Le jeune generation comprendre que le pays de Royaume-Uni besoin de l’europe car ce génération a appris l’histoire réel de decolonization et le position de Royaume-Uni dans le monde de siècle XXIe. Cette generation eu de choix “remain” dans le referendum. Mais le génération de “baby boomers” vie dans le paradis de fou. Il n’est possible a apprender cette generation. Ils peut aider la nation et le monde s’ils meurent rapidement et offrir la décisions à la génération que sait.

Mais le choix peut etre complex. Il ne devrait pas un choix binaire mais un choix multiple. Ces choix peut reflecter the complexités dans tout de positions de question. Si la question est complexe, le peuple peut penser, et si ces penser ces peut comprender le gravité de situation. Je ne dit pas que ce solution peut rendre les peuples meilleurs citoyens, mais quelque hommes/femmes peut deviennent ca. Et nous pouvons avoir un monde ou le problèmes – même s’il ne sont pas résolus – peut être compris meilleurs.

Source de image : https://www.debatingeurope.eu/2018/01/09/should-britain-have-a-referendum-on-the-final-brexit-deal/#.XKAFmXdFyUk

The War Against Enemies Within


If there is something that gets the average Indian’s blood boiling, it is the idea of war. There is something uniquely attractive about war – it serves to satiate our sense of nationalism, our sense of the need for quick remedies and of course, the need for violence. Humans are by nature attracted to violence, which both explains the breathtaking amount of mental space we expend on trying not to be violent, and also the number of fuck-ups we end up with for not heeding this ocean of advice we created ourselves. But not all wars are equal, or equally winnable.

Take China for instance. It was our good fortune to have a retired brigadier speak of India’s foreign relations during a recently concluded course. I asked him why we can’t deal with our bête noire, China, since China seems to have the only combination of anti-India interests and capacity to cause real problems. He answered that China couldn’t be called our annoyer-in-chief, and avoided the remainder of the question. Now he is right about the first part (and the only part he answered), since the average Indian does not consider China to be the principal problem. Ask the man on the street, and you would at most get some vague response such as “stop using Chinese goods”. What else ? Nothing.

So even if China manages to block India’s attempts across the diplomatic board and strip away allies from South Asia to Africa, Indians as a whole aren’t very concerned. This too without China launching a charm offensive, proof of which can be seen in that while we use Chinese products, we are still extremely racist and xenophobic as far as real Chinese are concerned.

But the retired soldier did not simply avoid my question, he diverted it to his favourite talking point – the case of Pakistan. We were being given the standard explanation of why Pakistan is a problem. An overtly-tolerant Nehru, a hoodwinked Indira Gandhi, Pakistan’s own weak political establishment, the domination of the Punjabi-army and the need to maintain the raison d’etre of Pakistan in religious jihad. Net result was a number of wars, which had been completely dominated by India, and which led Pakistan to choose its cunning “thousand cuts strategy” to wear out Indian forces. So we needed to deal with Pakistan more than China. Period.

I won’t go into the solutions proposed, since they too are way too textbookish. What mattered is that he was clear on one thing – war won’t solve the issue by itself. We had fought plenty of wars with Pakistan, and these wars had yielded next to nothing due to the lack of political will. More wars without proper diplomatic follow-up will yield nothing more than losses. Since the Indian army was completely subservient to the civilian establishment, more bloodshed without political machismo would simply bring us back to square one.

Up to this point, I didn’t have much disagreement with him. It is true that at summits following major wars, the way we returned land and soldiers to the Pakistanis is unconscionable. It is also true that more wars would probably yield even less results because the situation in South Asia continues to leave less and less room for rapid and decisive action. War for the sake of war is something we left behind in the trenches of WWI, and it’s best not to bring those antiquated ideas back.

But he had one last thing to say. He believed our current dispensation – led by Narendra Modi – was made of a different material. It was at last showing the necessary gumption to walk the talk as far as political will was concerned. Be it a surgical strike or the recent Balakot attack in response to Pulwama, the PM was finally showing strength of an order no one previously had. Our enemies would now learn to fear us, and this itself would act as a deterrent.

I couldn’t disagree more. Personal political views aside, Modi’s relations with Pakistan have been vacillating at best, shifting from hugs to surgical strikes like the weather changes from sunshine to rain in a matter of moments. But it’s not my intention to look at the whole history of Indo-Pak relations in the NDA-II years. Instead, I’ll simply focus on the most recent events, beginning with the attack on the CRPF convoy in Pulwama.

This attack was nothing new. For years, nay decades, the Indian forces had been under attack, with notable incidents like Pathankot and Uri coming to mind even before we begin speaking of Pulwama. There can be endless debate on whether we have learnt our lessons or not, but the bigger point for me is how we respond to these attacks.

Right off the bat, it must be said that the response to Uri was somewhat novel. Even if we discount the romanticized exaggeration of Bollywood, it can be said without doubt that the surgical strikes which followed clearly managed to do significant damage to the terror infrastructure within PoK. It was not so much the action itself, but its scale and efficacy that remain as indelible marks of success for both the military establishment and their political masters.

Fast forward to Pulwama, and our first target wasn’t so much the Pakistanis, as the Kashmiris. All over India, Kashmiri traders, students and journalists came under attack from their fellow Indians. This was nationalism masquerading as xenophobia, finding enemies within to compensate for attacks from separatists. To make matters worse, people seen defending innocent Kashmiris were hauled up and beaten as well, marking a clear Balkanisation of the Indian psyche which had not existed as recently as 2016.

The government, for its part, bided its time, arguing that the army had been given complete freedom to choose where and how to attack. One wonders whether this wasn’t the politicians simply insuring themselves against the backlash should anything go wrong. After all, if the army messed up, then the army was to blame. And you couldn’t blame the army without being anti-national. So no one would be blamed.

Eventually, we did get the tit-for-tat response. Our jets flew into Gilgit-Baltistan (beyond PoK) and bombed a place called Balakot. It was declared that we had attacked and destroyed one of the main staging areas for terror attacks in J&K. Blank spaces remained, but we assumed these would be filled up in due course. In the meantime, everyone who had been rooting for a punitive war against Pakistan celebrated their and their uncle/aunt’s victory over Pakistan. The media outlets waxed eloquent (if screaming at a high volume be eloquence) about the success of India in dealing with Pakistan and how the latter had been taught a lesson. As if we hadn’t already been completing the syllabus every time the truants attacked us in the past.

All this was expected, but what happened thereafter was not. For one thing, confusion deepened. Information did not come out, and questions raised received questions in return. How many terrorists were killed ? Did we stop to count the number ? Okay, then what about Pakistan saying we bombed a forest ? Did Pakistan pay you to say this ? The questions and the jingoistic counter-questions dominated the media relentlessly, providing TRPs and noise which drowned out the actual achievement of the air force. Questions remained and remained unanswered in the minds of people who took a moment to think about it.

Before this storm would settle, Pakistan counterattacked. Except we didn’t learn that it had counterattacked until much later. All we learnt was that there was a dogfight in the skies and two of their planes had been shot down. Alright, good for the IAF. But then we learnt that only one plane had been shot down. Another plane that had been shot down was our own, and it had landed in Pakistani territory. Great, so it wasn’t that clean a victory after all. But when did this all happen ? Did we attack again ? Did they attack us ? Counterattack ? Oh, okay. But they were pushed back right. Some nationalist pride was salvaged.

But then we learnt that Wing Commander Abhinandan had been captured by the Pakistanis. Would we go to war against them ? Musn’t we ? The odd thing here was that the TV channels, which had been celebrating the success of Modi’s warlike strategy, cooled down to argue for a measured approach. Not caution, because caution doesn’t garner TRP, but maybe leave it to the actual leaders to take the call instead of braying for war ? The goal was now to get the man with the big moustache back.

Before anyone could decide how to get him back, Imran Khan (Pakistani PM) simply said he would be returned. No questions asked, he would be returned as a gesture of humanity. Our political leaders quickly tried to spin this as Pakistan being forced to return the Indian officer. But there appeared little sign of compulsion. Pakistan – after all – had returned Abhinandan on its own, before (and therefore without) any major diplomatic or military sparring. The “bound to” argument had to be stretched to its limits in the case of the POW.

In the meantime, focus had been shifted to how Abhinandan had been a great officer, who had shot down a F-16 with a MiG-21. Technicalities aside, this was indeed something admirable, since the MiG-21 was far older. But whose job was it to ensure that Abhinandan had a better plane than the flying coffin ? In our euphoria at getting the POW back, this question was conveniently forgotten. We were back to celebrating the army – and by unjustified extension, Modi’s – success against Pakistan.

But such celebration was muted, not because the leaders didn’t spend enough on news channels or firecrackers (or garlands) but because to many Indians, and the world at large, the spectacle of the latest Indo-Pakistan sparring had left an impression different from the ones earlier. For the first time, India seemed to be more eager than Pakistan to prove the latter was evil. For the first time, the dearth of data and confusing narratives was coming from the Indian side rather than the facetious Pakistanis. Finally, for the first time, it was the Pakitanis who were making a humane gesture instead of India. We may or may not have won the dogfight, but we lost control of, and eventually lost, the narrative through our overexertion to prove our vision of a strong government and a strong nation correct.

If we suffered a defeat in the domain of public perception, we also suffered in our other actions with Pakistan. We removed Pakistan’s Most Favoured Nation (a trade term) status and warned that we would stop water from our rivers to theirs. But going beyond this, we stopped their shooters from participating in international games being held in India. This earned us a stern warning from the international bodies, the message being that India’s applications to host future international events would be in jeopardy. Given that our sportspersons and sports administrators are no less nationalistic than our soldiers or Modi himself (more so in all likelihood), it seems patently unfair to make them suffer so we can show our vindictive side.

But it was not just sports that suffered. The biggest sufferers were those who spoke out against this patent mess that occurred. Questions were raised from day one, regarding matters as technical as diverging satellite imagery of Balakot, to the very simple question of why the details were not released completely in an organized manner. These questions were not only brushed aside for being anti-national, but their owners were also punished. Case in point is a professor in Orissa who was dismissed for raising critical questions. In my own city of Kolkata, no less than three people were actually beaten up for casting doubt on the course of events and the veracity of the many claims made by both sides.

Obviously, none of this affects Pakistan in any way. If the monolithic image of Pakistan be the one we truly subscribe to, it should be assumed that the civil society in Pakistan has no voice, and regardless of what they say or we say, the army would not be moved. They being deceitful, would use everything we say against us without any moral compunctions. So does it really matter what we say ?

It does, for us. We are a democracy and a country with a vibrant public sphere that even the emergency could not suppress. From nationalistic journalism to sting posts, our press does anything and everything, and we must be proud of that. Our intellectuals – teachers, professors, lawyers, activists and students all included – are respected the world over, and this respect comes not because we like or dislike Pakistan, but because of what we say for ourselves and about the world at large. To question these pillars of free speech would be to take our country backward toward colonial times, since democracy and free speech go hand in hand.

In fact, the willingness of a section of the populace – both the paid trolls and goons and the silent spectators – to condone hooliganism and enforced silence in the name of nationalism, is a sign of fascism. As is xenophobia. Plurality of language, opinion and religion cut across all “dominant” narratives, and domination can only be secured through violence in the last resort. Once secured however, it creates and perpetuates a sense of self-censorship and further silence that allows this narrative to become hegemonic i.e. to enter the minds of people and control them from within. Support for, and compliance with, the proponents of the narrative becomes a compulsion against which we gradually stop thinking because thinking leads to speaking and speaking is pointless if we only get beaten up and lose our jobs.

In a sense, then, the call for unity against anything – terrorism, Pakistan or fascism – must not be at the cost of suppressing cross-currents of thought and opinion. Our country does not need the weakness of Pakistan, nor would our opinions weaken India and make Pakistan strong. Instead, we stand to lose our democracy and freedom by relentlessly searching for the “enemies within”. It’s time we held the vigilantes for the war against “enemies within” to account, or prepared to be crushed within our own minds.

PUBG and Gaming As Ideology

Let me begin this piece by relating two very different experiences I had, so I can better explain my use of the term “ideology”. First – imagine you’re in a crowded local train compartment in 2016. This is back when Candy Crush and Angry Birds were all that mobile gamers could handle on their phones, and the ordinary traveller was usually playing these or, simply watching a film/listening to a song. Now imagine further that you have a couple of colleagues with you, who have more than the average level of interest in the progress of the fine arts. One of them has noticed that you had put up a post on Facebook a couple of days back claiming that gaming is the future and movies were simply outdated forms of expression of art.

He strongly disagrees. Being a film connoisseur himself, he cannot fathom how an educated person can claim that what is basically a format for children and young adults can overtake one which has produced such rich expression of human emotion. You explain to him that games are basically more interactive, and unlike movies, get you involved the same way as interactive experiments are better than just reading a book. He asks – “But how many people can afford such devices ? This is basically entertainment for the elite, whereas movies are for the masses.” You don’t have much of an answer to this, since gaming rigs do really cost much more than what the ordinary person would be willing to afford. You point out that gaming rigs are getting cheaper, but you know in your heart that the price differential between a cheap smartphone or TV and a gaming PC (or console) is still substantial.

Time passes, and eventually, something called PUBG comes out. It’s called PlayerUnknown’s Battlegrounds. Unlike the majority of games, this was actually developed as a collaborative effort by gamers themselves, and the end result is breathtaking. Even when it is not discounted and priced at a somewhat hefty INR 999 on Steam, it sells like hot cakes. Within days, the gaming community is abuzz and the game swamps practically all others, including the likes of GTA V ( highest earning game of all-time, whose total earnings to date dwarf the most successful movies), Counter-Strike (easily the most competitive game in the last decade), Overwatch (the new shiny kid on the block), World of Warcraft (which survives courtesy a somewhat different format) and Destiny (which was already on the decline by this point).

At this point, one of your many Facebook friends gets a brand new PC. Mind you, he’s not one to go in for nitpicking CPU part numbers and deciding on RAM voltages. He plonks the cash, and gets a sweet-looking rig. All the latest hardware, including a display that blows your 3 year-old one out of the water. You hit him up on Steam, ostensibly to welcome him to the Steam community. He asks what games you are playing. You inform him of some single-player title you’ve been trying out, hoping to find some common interests. His reply is – “dude don’t you play PUBG ?” You take a moment to consider his preferences – he must be a multiplayer-heavy gamer with not much interest for story-rich titles. He must also have little interest in pushing his rig to its limits, since PUBG can hardly be called the most demanding of titles. You politely tell him that you’re not so much into multiplayer. Does he play single-player as well ? Surely he must, otherwise that monster rig would simply be wasted. He replies that he basically just plays PUBG, and he can’t believe that you being a gamer don’t.

On the face of it, the two experiences have a common thread – the argument of the first one i.e. gamers are rich kids – is substantiated by the second experience. However, there is a more subtle thread here. Note that the novice gamer built a big rig, but took up the game that was most popular. He could have had a more mediocre rig (I honestly doubt he knew the full potential of the stuff he had bought, except that it was value for money), and still would have taken up PUBG. In a way, PUBG had become the calling card of the novice (I don’t use the word noob, since it is derogatory) into the party that is PC gaming. Many more like him, who had never heard of PC gaming, were also installing PUBG on their old and gaming-unworthy hardware simply because of the craze that surrounded the game. These were people who had only gamed on-and-off and could not be counted as part of the dedicated gaming community. Yet they took up gaming with PUBG, and forced their ageing rigs to bear the brunt of this new, fast-paced game.

So in a way, my argument from the first experience was proving to be partly correct. More people were gaming, but not because rigs were getting cheaper. It was because a product had arrived that people were genuinely prepared to play without first going through the baptism of a gaming parlour, a friend’s gaming rig or YouTube binge-watching professionals game. Naturally, the better you computer is, the better it would handle the requirements of the game. While a really high-end system would not be required, older and weaker PCs would also struggle to maintain the frame rates needed to give gamers the speed they needed in the game. So there was an urge to upgrade, though I doubt it would have had a major impact on the lowest gaming segment, who simply had neither the enthusiasm nor the money to improve their experience. Yet they at least knew that PC gaming was more than the by now grainy CS and CS: GO and something that could be looked forward to.

But the real reason I’m writing this article, and have included the word ideology in the title, is not because PUBG was a success on PC, but because it was a success on mobile platforms. You see, PC gaming always had a somewhat muted substratum of people who would play older and often free or very cheap multiplayers like Counter Strike once in a while. They may even play it regularly, and never think of upgrading to a different game or a different rig. PUBG opened up new possibilities, and forced them to question their gaming addiction to know whether they had it in them to truly upgrade. Even if we add to these people the new converts (like my dear rich friend), we can still see progress as incremental rather than revolutionary. This is especially true in India, where the pricing ensured that PUBG on PC remained the province of actual dedicated gamers who would spend money on Steam.

On the mobile platforms however, the barriers were lowered spectacularly. Contrary to how most people see their phones, smartphone SoCs actually have rather decent integrated graphics solutions. Compared to the PC market, wherein an integrated solution would deliver pretty shitty results in any game, mobile SoCs offer much better graphics for the buck. This is partly because the mobile market developed in an integrated rather than modular form from the very beginning. So while a dedicated high end PC owner would definitely have a discrete graphics card, a high end mobile owner would still have an integrated solution. This integration trickled down the price ladder so that even mid-range devices could at least run a good number of games without giving up the ghost.

Another notable difference was in the pricing models on PC and mobile. Even today, PC games are usually expected to be sold with an upfront price that will cover most of the features. DLCs and in-game perks can be bought separately, but you should be able to access the basics and “complete” the game if you coughed up the digits noted on the price tag. In case of gaming, Freemium became the go-to model since apps started out with such few features that selling them made no sense. Hence, the mobile user became accustomed to getting the very basic product for free, and then spending money to gradually buy features in the game. While many PC devices are approaching the freemium model today, it can still be said that mobile games offer much less for free than PC games do for a price tag.

In keeping with this tradition, PUBG was made free for all. This, and the lower tech barrier, ensured that when the PC enthusiasm for PUBG filtered into the mobile scene, it became a tsunami. College students, Youtube personalities and next door aunties (to a limited extent), who had never bothered to find out what a GTX 1080 was, were now gaming. This was particularly notable in India, where the earlier gaming revolutions, eg. Pokemon Go, never quite caught on so well. So for many people (including my girlfriend), the shift was from Candy Crush to a full-fledged PC game ported to mobile. Not surprisingly, they were hooked, and this brought still more people to the PUBG party, and today we have practically everyone with a mobile playing this game. Parents are counselling their kids to focus on studies instead of this game,  college hostels are banning the game (really?) and (this may sound sexist) there seems to be a lot more female gamers all of a sudden.

But how does it all relate to ideology ? You see, as someone who has plonked close to a lakh of rupees (or more) on my current rig and more than thrice that amount over the years on a variety of other gadgets (including three laptops), I pride myself as a gamer. I swelled up with pride when the Regional Manager of a major GPU brand (Zotac I think it was) asked me how often I gamed per week and was impressed by my conservative estimate. I happily flaunt my Nvidia Gamers Connect ID tag and the mousepad I won there. I happily admit that I suck at multiplayer, but claim to be a good gaming critic who analyses games in depth and detail. I may not be one of the fancy band of gaming historians but I can provide a good sociological account of gaming any day.

And all of this has to do with PC gaming. For long, every gamer, including myself, considered gaming to be either for PC or consoles. When mobile gaming came along, we saw it as a junior wannabe for those who don’t/can’t dump the cash required to get a proper gaming rig. We felt sorry for them, but like elites of yore, we did not consider mobile gamers part of our tribe. Chances are, if you talk to a gamer today, s/he will reiterate this opinion. If you wanted to be a true gamer, you had to save up for a rig (took me a decade to get the upgrade I wanted) and then upgrade incrementally, carrying out research or at least knowing which brands produce the most value-for-money ready to use PCs or gaming laptops. This was our ideology. This was my ideology when I studied games, stocked up my Steam library and generally played games that I knew most people in the world never would.

[Statutory Disclosure – I consider gamers on gaming laptops to be PC gamers.]

But PUBG has changed all this. For the first time, we have a game that is played by both the elites and the mobile gamers. It has created a link which neither World of Warcraft, nor the others could forge. Hence, PC gamers today are faced with the very real fact that their tech superiority doesn’t mean anything in at least one test case. So does it mean that they have to consider every PUBG wannabe with a smartphone to be their equal?

Nope. As galling as this may sound to my egalitarian friends, PUBG is simply one game in a million. Most games which deliver the ground-breaking experiences associated with modern gaming are playable solely on PC. Sure, you could jerry-rig your Android to run some version of Windows and then play in it, but the controls would be atrocious and the graphics lags would simply make you want to tear your eyeballs out. The shift from the passive engagement provided by movies to the active involvement provided by games will not be achieved by multiplayer games like PUBG, no matter how hard they try. It will be achieved by games like Hellblade : Senua’s  Sacrifice, which makes use of efficient Dolby Atmos and other tech, aside from the graphics engine itself, which work best on PC. It will be achieved by games like Far Cry 5 or Shadow of the Tomb Raider, both of which offer graphics (and now Ray-Tracing) which go far beyond the capacity of the best Snapdragon 8xx SoCs. And the messy touchscreen controls would never match up against the precision afforded by the keyboard or even the console controllers.

So while mobile gamers may have breached a certain barrier on their cheap devices, they still have a long way to go. Most of them will not walk the path, and will continue playing PUBG. In India, where gaming is considered such a luxury that devs like Blizzard don’t even bother to have dedicated servers for South Asia, this trend will ensure a gradual division between true PC gamers who will move onto newer and better titles, and the others, who will continue playing PUBG or similar titles. The twain shall not meet.

Okay, so now that my bruised ego is patched up, I must also acknowledge what this PUBG business has accomplished. It has, first and foremost, brought more people to gaming in countries like India than ever before. This is both a boon and a bane. It is a boon because the issues relating to gaming-  ping rates, connections, frame rates, hardware, etc. – would be better understood by the multitude because it would directly affect their ability to play the game. While Fraps may remain Geek Greek for some time to come, the basics are increasingly being grasped. This is necessary if we are to build up support for any major India-related changes by major developers. Democracy, after all, finds its strength in numbers.

Secondly, more and more women are taking up gaming. This is a good sign, because gender bias tends to produce stereotypes which really don’t take any genre forward. If women play more games, they would also be more aware of the inbuilt biases, and would campaign for their removal. Once they have sufficient numbers, this can actually lead to positive change and more inclusive, diverse narratives.

Thirdly, there is a real chance that the growing numbers of gamers from India would persuade the devs to actually look beyond the clichés associated with India. Every Indian game level doesn’t have to be a picturesque hill station (or a hill country like Nepal/Kyrat). Every character doesn’t have to be called so and so Singh. And we deserve better than to have simply the expletives translated into Hindi. It can be hoped that the diversity of India can be made to reflect in the games, one level or character at a time, as the market for games in India grows. PUBG, with its multiplayer format, isn’t the best start, but we can hope that some people would find other games and then become a focus group for devs who wish to explore new cultural boundaries.

But there are pitfalls. The biggest one is that a lot of people are playing games who have not played it before. This democratization runs the real risk of half-literate demagogues demanding idiotic actions like censorship of a specific action or element. We have already had our brush with this in Fallout 3, where the two-headed cow named Brahmin led to the game almost being banned in India. Thankfully, the furore has died out with Fallout 4, though the Brahmins continue to graze the post-nuclear wasteland (and yield delicious meat).

Chances are that someone would find something irresponsible, hurtful, etc. etc. and begin demanding that it be scrapped. If enough people raise such demands, we can find a Gaming Censor Board of India on the lines of the film one. Given how thin the gaming base in India still is, it is highly unlikely that big developers would be willing to make more than cosmetic changes to appease this censor board. The result could be that many games are never formally released in India. This would in turn damage the very necessary move towards legitimate purchase of games in India, and encourage unnecessary piracy (which many Indians still justify on grounds they would find appalling if applied to their own jobs and functions in society).

But all in all, I believe this is a positive development. The PC master race’s pride is hurt, but not destroyed. At the same time, gradual increase in the number of gamers would increase the possibility of India being a viable market, and lead to more development jobs and studio focus moving towards the country. God knows we need decent-paying jobs which require coding (and designing and voice-acting and….) skills. Further, we can finally have more variety with AAA titles actually offering South Asian servers (I simply can’t stand more Mandarin chats) and variations going beyond the titular “Singh” guy and touristy hill station level. PUBG, while not being the most ideal one, is a start, and we can hope that will a little bit of awareness and some inducement, we can grow our ranks of actual PC gamers (ah my dear sweet ego) without facing the pitfalls that come with having a large and illiterate user base.

Brexit and the Perils of A Smooth Transition

The Stuart kings – and James II in particular – were known for their confidence in their own God-given right to rule. They neither liked the parliamentary rubber-stamping that Elizabeth I sought, nor thought it necessary until there was an invading army to fight and no money in the treasury. But why James II in particular ? Partly because the king came to power not through an arduous process of Darwinian trial, but rather smoothly. This, one can argue, increased his sense of complacency and made him feel that pushing the Puritans and parliamentary groups to his position would be easy. The result, as we all know, was a nosebleed and a loss of power to a guy from Netherlands.

You’d think this particular episode would have a straight parallel with the current Brexit scenario. Britain overestimated her ability to push away the European Union to the positions she preferred (positions being a marker of acute schizophrenia in this case) and learnt that in the end, the Europeans held the cards. Now she’s facing up to the possibility that not only would she have to shell out a ungodly amount of cash, but also accept many of the environmental, trade and tariff regulations that govern the European Union.

But this would be too simple. The British aren’t simpletons to think that they can walk off from a marriage in a huff, tearing everything up and making her own rules as she goes along. Nor could they simply believe that the EU would bow to every argument they made. National pride aside, the EU collective, as a whole, far outstripped Britain in terms of economy, populace and geopolitical clout. And the EU had every reason to prove that moving out of the Union was a messy, chaotic, costly and divisive path that was fundamentally not in the interest of any member nation to take. Else every country dissatisfied with the EU – from Italy with her budgets to Greece with her debt – would simply follow the example of Britannia and slam the door on Michel Barnier, Jean-Claude Juncker and Co.

Yet if you read the news, far too many people seem to be blaming exactly this sense of entitlement, arrogance and confidence for the miserable state the island collective finds herself in. It’s said that the Brexiters specifically believed that the EU would bow to their every wish, that the countries within and outside would line up to sign trade deals and the EU could “whistle” all it wanted about a big divorce bill. In the end, the trade secretaries would be buccaneering around the world signing trade deals, the UK could cherry-pick which immigrants to let in and restore “sovereignty” over every aspect of her national life. The last is especially important, because it was implied that she could erase all those ornery EU regulations and pencil in her own regulations. Parliament and country would finally be sovereign (long live the Queen!)

So let’s look at this argument in a little more detail. The argument begins by saying that Britain had an empire, which was the best in the world. But she was no despot. Instead, constitutional monarchy at home and gradual devolution of power in the colonies ensured that while the metropole remained stable, the colonies thrived, gaining freedom in proportion to their ability to rule themselves. When the time came, they took their rightful place under the sun and became equal members of the Commonwealth, resplendent in British values such as freedom, equal rights and democracy (sometimes).

But there’s more. The country stood alone for a good while during both world wars, fighting off the imperialist and then fascist designs of Germany. More than any other country (US and Russia included) it was Britain that sacrificed to secure the future of humanity. An ideal British future of course.

And all this leaves out so much. Take the industrial revolution. Take the development of modern capitalism in the City. Take cricket. Take that one time they won the World Cup in football. Take…..

Alright, that’s enough. Honestly, the above account is a bit exaggerated, and it would perhaps be hard to find anyone born in the 1980s and after who believes all this. But they believe a good part of it. Human beings since the age of the Homo habilis have been passing on their “culture” to their kids. And it would not be an exaggeration to argue that the most crucial part of this culture – the sense of self in social context – was passed on by the older generation. A generation that believed in these ideas more fully, having been born during the World War and at least, when the empire was still a reality. These people would have passed on stories of themselves and their forefathers in the theatres of war, and in the colonies. Throw in some Kipling, some Lawrence of Arabia, and some grandmothers’ tales, and you have the perfect recipe for an imperial “culture”.

Now remember, such an imperial culture was one of privilege. Regardless of their financial well being (and they were often better off than at least their counterparts of colour), the British enjoyed a position of relative social well-being and power. This was used and buttressed by racial exclusivism and paternalism towards the coloured “races”. The stories narrated would be contextualized by such racially motivated ideals of superiority and the actual facts of privilege enjoyed by the forefathers. So much so that the very ideal of British manliness would be linked up with these ideals.

Hence, a Jacob Rees-Mogg, or a David Davis, or any of the other Conservative Brexiters demanding a return of British sovereignty, would either belong to the immediate post-war generation (Baby Boomers) or a later one but fully infused with this imperial culture. It would be natural then, for them to chafe at the supposed straitjacket that was the backward EU.

But there’s one more problem. The EU isn’t made up of a bunch of former British colonies, nor could they be considered coloured. Instead, they include all of the other major former imperial powers (Japan excepted). France, Spain and Portugal all had huge empires, which rivalled the British and provoked more than one war. Indeed, in terms of power, extent and population, one or the other exceeded the zenith of the British Empire at one point or the other. Taken together, they of course did so by miles.

Quite naturally, each of these former colonial powers would have rosy ideals of their own colonial past. The French would have stories of the Maghrib, the Spanish of the Spanish Sahara, and the Portuguese of their possessions in Central and West Africa. And that is just Africa. There would be tales of Southeast Asia, South Asia, South America and so on.

So why are these countries sticking to the EU ? Surely there are a substantial number of people who wish to reassert their sovereignty based on a glorious imperial vision of the past ? To be fair, this question itself is partly Anglocentric. With Brexit hogging the headlines, the Europeans are automatically placed in positions of observers and commenters, not actors. The British do – or fail to do – and the EU reacts.

Cut through this bias in the English language press and one could find that there are people in the EU mainland states that are also rather dissatisfied with the Eurozone and the Union. Yet they don’t trigger referendums and then go through messy divorce deals with their heads in the clouds. In fact, they remain even more closely bonded together since they share many of the financial systems associated with the Euro, which Britain never became part of.

This brings us to the question – if a sense of colonial nostalgia and a colonial worldview are to blame for the Brexit mess, how come Britain is solely – or at least, worst – affected ? I would argue that the answer lies in how decolonization took place in Britain compared to the other European states. And for purposes of convenience, I will look specifically at France and Portugal. Spain, for all her pompous grandeur, followed a different trajectory in the 20th Century.

To begin with, let’s question the idea that Britain provided civilization to the colonies. Each of the colonial powers offered – and force-fed – their versions of culture to the people they conquered. It takes time to ingrain this culture into the minds of the colonized. Sure, there are economic incentives and political opportunities to be had in imbibing this culture. However, internalization is a complex process which – as Partha Chatterjee has shown – takes place in the minds of the colonized, not simply in assembly halls and purses. With such mental colonization develops mental resistance, which eventually takes the shape of nationalist anti-colonialism.

Yet neither in terms of depth nor time was British cultural influence unique. What Partha Chatterjee shows of India, Frantz Fanon has shown for North Africa. Sure, the time period and the processes are different. But one cannot call the British one deep and the others skin-deep. In terms of time period too, Britain can’t hold the torch. Portuguese colonialism occurred during a period when Britain was still forming her institutions. In the regions that Portugal held onto, she introduced everything from the Inquisition to Portuguese cuisine. If we accept that colonialism develops with time, then the Portuguese can claim pole position in the race to carry the white man’s burden.

Yet perhaps the crux of British exceptionalism lies not so much in introducing the British culture itself, but in introducing British institutions. Regardless of the cultural and political level of the colonized, the British argued that they needed to be introduced to British institutions. In the prevailing spirit of liberalism, even the most ardently conservative politician would drape colonialism in the garb of preparing the people for eventual self-government. This was more true of India, than say Africa, since Indian culture was seen as more advanced than the African ones.

The British would argue that true to their goal, they gradually introduced self-government. This was done first in the regions that were socially and culturally (and racially) at the same level as the British – Canada, Australia, etc. and then gradually to the lower levels. That culturally superior India became independent earlier than say the African colonies, fits in nicely with this narrative.

The problem here is that this is partially true. Compared to the French or the Portuguese, the British did manage to introduce greater measures of self-government at earlier periods in the histories of their colonial rule. The reasons for this have less to do with British culture than with the complex interplay of factors in French/Portugese culture and their differently developing institutions. Yet when dates and figures are shown, the fact remains that the British were more willing to devolve power than were the French or the Portugese.

This can easily gel with ideals of British justice and fairness. Colonized intellectuals were often told of a legendary institution called British justice, which would ensure that each got his/her due. When that due came to involve questions of surrender of power, the British were only too happy to do so. This, again, can easily be made to work with facts. British decolonization proceeded with a false sense of smoothness. False, in the sense that the colonized had to struggle relentlessly to gain the freedom they deserved. But there were no violent breaks such as prolonged civil wars.

Take the case of India. While the nationalist movement strove hard to achieve freedom, the imperialist can argue with some merit that the British gave an increasingly large amount of power. This meant that despite there being revolt and rebellions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, imperialism was never in crisis since the 1857 revolt until the British chose to pull down the shutters.

Similarly, the African possessions of the Empire transitioned relatively smoothly. While insurgencies did exist, there were no major civil wars in say Egypt, or Sudan, or British East Africa. In Asia, the British colonies either remained in the hands of the British without facing any existential crisis (Hong Kong, Singapore), or moved towards freedom through institutional, and comparatively peaceful means (Burma, Malaya).

While this could persuade the British that theirs was a benevolent imperialism that gave the best British ideals and institutions to the subject nations and then set them free like a schoolmaster bidding well to his graduating students, France and Portugal had rather different experiences. As mentioned, neither was particularly interested in devolving power to the extent the British did.

In the French case, the country tried to take its possessions in Indo-China back to the pre-war situations after World War II. Leaders like Ho Chi Minh would not accept this. This sparked a violent civil war that ended with French accepting their military inadequacy and leaving Indo-China to its fate.

But this was not the only trouble facing the newly formed Fourth Republic. While many regions of Africa decolonized without extensive bloodshed, Algeria dragged France into another war. Here, the resident French, called Pieds Noirs, fought to keep the country within France (it was considered a province and not a separate colony). This precipitated a crisis that eventually led the French to dissolve their assembly and place power in the hands of a military general who had come out of retirement. If the French could claim any ingenuity from this whole episode, it was that De Gaulle remained a republican head with a functional democracy, and didn’t turn Fifth Republic France into a military dictatorship (although, ahem, Napoleon II anyone ?).

Portugal, by contrast, lost her military dictatorship trying to hold onto her colonies. Even as the European colonial powers were becoming convinced that they would not be able to hold onto their Indian possessions for much longer, Portugal obstinately held onto Goa, Daman and Diu. Eventually, she had to face an Indian army invasion and occupation.

From this time onwards, she had to expend more and more money to militarily hold onto her colonies. This proved especially costly in Africa, where both the Soviet Union and the US were trying to win support of groups that each hoped would succeeded the effete colonial powers. Matters reached a head in 1974, when the crumbling colonial edifice sparked a military revolt, surprisingly supported by the civilian populace. The Carnation Revolution dismantled the remaining colonies of Portugal and also the Estado Novo, ushering in democracy in the Iberian country.

Long story short, while Britain could, with some legitimacy and gross oversimplification, claim that her endgame of empire was one of gradual and orderly withdrawal, the French and Portugese could make no such claim. Hence, if the British grandmothers told their grandkids that British honour and justice was unique and contributed to the fairness of the grand design of colonialism, they could back them up with some facts and figures. Their French and Portuguese counterparts would probably not be able to say the same of the Algerian Civil War or the Carnation Revolution.

This brings us back to the question of Brexit. The arrogance shown during Brexit arises from this belief in a colonial past. This belief in the colonial past, and by corollary, Britain’s unique qualities and unique right to claim special status under the sun, remained untarnished to a great extent. The ideals of colonialism remained ideals that appeared good and admirable. They remained ideals that could inspire, and in doing so, allow generations who had seen nothing except the dying embers of colonialism, to still believe in the greatness and the uniqueness of Britannia and her children. France and Portugal tried longer and harder to hold onto their colonies, and in doing so, suffered such irreparable damage that the ideals of colonialism could no longer gel with their ideals of national pride. If anything remained of the idea of national uniqueness, it had to be distanced to some degree from the debacles of the mid-20th Century.

Hence, while Britain continued to believe in her glorious colonial past and see the world through a lens that no one else used any longer, the French and Portuguese had to remake their world views. They gradually became convinced that given their diminished stature and power, they could only wield the stick if they stuck together. Hence they chose to remain in the EU. Britain, with her colonial ideals, never could feel herself to be at one with these lesser mortals. She chose to dream on and leave the petty realists, and in doing so, was dunked in the cold but clear water of  reality. But will she wake up ?

 

 

The Distances of Emptiness

We live in a populous country, overpopulated being the most common adjective. Our people/km squared stands in the thousands even in rural areas with any semblance of life. In cities, the numbers simply reach astronomical figures, epitomized in day-to-day life by the “hustle-bustle” of the city. Wherever you go, people are pushing along, making their own microscopic spaces within a system that will not yield an inch without an elbow. Each step on the footpath, and each swerve of the car, is a carefully measured move designed to avoid those around you. Space comes at a huge premium, and huge spaces – emptiness – are unnatural.

Now to be honest, emptiness is unnatural. Nature abhors vacuum, and given the chance, she will fill up every bit of available space with something or someone. There’s no better example of this than the endless encroachments of plants and small animals in abandoned houses, and the fungal growth of slums in previously empty fields and under bridges/flyovers. Ergo, space and emptiness have to be created and held against the laws of nature in a country like ours. And when you create something artificially, it is never without purpose.

Such thoughts circled in my mind as I sat on a lazy Monday afternoon in the Professors’ Common Room of Presidency University. I had come to meet someone, to get something signed, and then go off to lunch and submit the thing I needed signed. All that had to happen before my coursework class, which was hardly an hour and half away. Time, then, wasn’t exactly my playmate. Arriving in the huge main room (you can call it a hall by the dimensional standards of the modern ceremony halls) I was greeted with near-emptiness. I duly dumped my bag at a respectable place and headed to the room of the person I sought. The light was on, but no one was in. Probably in class. I’d have to wait.

So I settled into one of the many wooden chairs with green upholstery that now stand guard around three tables arranged in the middle of the room. One presumes these are used to hold meetings of the professors, because the arrangement has a distinct formality to it, whether it is in the drab design of the chairs, the fact that the tables are arranged in a line or the glass top of the central and largest table. Yes, glass tops somehow speak of authority like nothing can.

But there was no meeting being held, and in my now frequent visits in the past few months, I’d never seen a meeting being held there. Which was good, because I personally didn’t like the idea of being shoved out of a heavily air-conditioned room into the blistering late monsoon heat outside. Perhaps I’ve become soft due to the hours spent in the air-conditioned staff room of the college where I teach. But I very much prefer large air-conditioned rooms for some reason.

The room had one or two students (other than me) when I had arrived, and they soon decided the air-conditioning wasn’t doing them any good. Or they, in their student senses had alerted them against spending too much time in the preserve of the professors. That sense had dulled in me, and so I relaxed myself which going through the letter I needed signed, for the umpteenth time. It was a boring letter, written in a grumpy voice for a grumpy official. My mind wandered, but within the walls of the room.

The room itself was not new. Nay, it was very old, and old to me too. During my days as an undergrad in the erstwhile Presidency College, it had been the central room of the PCR. Just as it was now. The difference then was that the staff room was then a-bustle with the professors, their pets (I mean obsessive students here) and a number of others who were hanging around or working in some way for the professors. There was no central table. Actually there was, but it was practically divided into a number of shifting sections occupied by various student/teacher groups. At any given time, there was a class taking place on one end and a group of students waiting for some attestation on the other. In the corners would sit a number of people who didn’t need the attention of the center, and were engaged I their own work. Others roamed around the central table, careful not to disturb the ongoing class, or stood near the walls, wearing what they felt were appropriate versions of the studious expression.

Teachers and students constantly moved in or out through the two huge doors that adorned the right wall, and the single door that joined the other large room of the PCR to the main one. This second room had been partitioned. Not in the airtight way that cubicles are, but with head-high partitions that you could peek over but knew you shouldn’t. Teachers sat at tables, some chatting, some sipping tea, some getting disturbed by pesky students. Staff moved in an out. A dedicated staffer (I forget his name) had carved a niche for himself and his kettle and stove in a corner of the room, and prepared tea for the teachers on request. He even did so for us students when some large-hearted professor would offer us some.

But there was one thing that stood out more than anything else – light. There was light, lots of it. It shone through the windows, through the huge doors. It fell on tables, books, coffee cups and faces. It lit them up and gave them a warm human glow. It could be the blistering summer or a cool winter afternoon, but the light was always there. Natural, pure, and ever so reminiscent of the days gone by – the days of tall pillars, huge archways and all the natural glow that filtered in through these wide spaces. It set you at ease, made you feel at one with the place and made you want to wait a bit longer. No, there wasn’t any air conditioning. But it didn’t matter, because as students, air conditioning was associated with stuffy offices and stuffier bureaucrats. The PCR wasn’t such a foreboding abode of authority, but a place to seek out answers (get them checked basically!) and discuss them with the professors. And it was all made easier by the light that shone everywhere.

So yeah, it all boiled down to two things – people and light, specifically sunshine. You could flit through the light, between the tables, across the main room and out without anyone bothering to question you. Neither would you question yourself. Because it was all accepted. Imperfect, in so many ways, for you could collide with someone, knock over someone’s food/drink, or simply walk in on an ongoing class and disturb people. But it was all accepted, and that made you feel at ease. Yeah, people and light made you feel at ease.

Sitting that day in the air-conditioned main room didn’t make me feel uneasy. Part of it was because I’m now used to such rooms, and no longer fear them. But part of it was also because the room had a logic of its own now. The windows had been boarded up in the main room. The arranged tables no longer had the same old haphazard arrangement of chairs. They were now all prim and proper, as if waiting on a meeting. The almirahs, with their overflowing answer scripts and files were gone. The walls were now bare, covered only with the forced-upon heritage of black-and-white images. Images of great people, who studied and worked in environments they would today not recognize as belonging to that of the University. They stare down from the walls, trapped where they do not belong, like many of the portraits in the Harry Potter series. They, if anyone, would be feeling unease at what has become of their institution.

All of this gave an impression of a waiting room. In a sense, perhaps it was, since you waited here before moving into one of the chambers dedicated to the professors. Or for some professor to emerge from a chamber and talk to you regarding a certain assignment, term paper or presentation. Like ornate waiting rooms designed to impress the solemn power of the intellectual elite, it asked you to sit and contemplate upon the reality of your position, your task and the person whom you wished to meet. It was supposed to inspire silent awe.

To someone who has seen the same room in an older, less formal time though, it gave off a different vibe. The room was now dark, and could only be lit by some overhanging modernist lamps that neither played with the architecture nor the overall décor. The chairs, the framed pictures, the tables and the darkness all combined with the high ceiling to produce a sepulchral effect. It may have been a Church, and we the faithful waiting for our respective deacons. Nothing – neither the warmth of the sun, nor the chirping of birds, nor the unnecessary movement of staff or students, would disturb this hallowed ground. The air-conditioning suddenly made me feel cold, as if I was in a place that wasn’t part of the biosphere of life.

Beyond the sepulchral waiting room were the catacombs. Stairs and narrow corridors meandered off, flanked by chambers of the deacons. Most of the rooms, at any given time, were empty. Most of the professors, for some reasons unbeknownst to me, were never in their rooms. Nor did their rooms give the semblance of life. They were artificial and cold, as if emphasizing that they, and their occupants, had neither the need nor the patience for the trivialities of life. The imperfections that creep in to make brick and mortar, wood and metal human, were absent. The human touch was yet to permeate, and only the machine existed. To serve, and to impress. But not to love.

And amidst all this, there was no light. No natural, warm sunlight anyway. The fluorescent and the incandescent markers of the machine lit up the hallways. Warmer glows sometimes came from the halogen incandescence of chambers, but these were few and far between. Few of the chambers were blessed with natural light, it is true. But they were rare, and their inhabitants probably equated Vitamin D with melanoma. The result was that the huge hall broke into catacombs of artificial lighting where everything was present, except light and people.

To be honest, a Monday would never tolerate complete vacuum. Students came, stood around like moss that couldn’t take root, and then left. People came and went, and in between, were vast spaces of emptiness. The spaces were shifting, but they were vast. So vast that you could hear your own heartbeat if you listened carefully, and your footsteps echoed like those of a giant. All the while the cold air-conditioning told you that you – as life indeed – wasn’t welcome.

But maybe I exaggerate. Maybe the Monday afternoon just wasn’t the best time to visit this monument to emptiness. But emptiness was woven into the very fabric of the machine that was the PCR now. And like every machine, it would have its own logic. Truly, the logic of the old College PCR, with its many imperfections, was simple. It provided a space for the teachers to sit and rest and study, and gave the students a place where they could consult them if the need arose.

Had that changed ? My mind told me it couldn’t possibly have. After all, the students now coming in had similar needs and intentions. Then why the emptiness? Perhaps it was the need to create distance. Why? Perhaps because it was a university? Universities are meant to be hallowed ground, where the intellectual elite live and work for the betterment of humanity. These are hallowed beings, and they need their space. Like the cloisters of the monks of yore, they need the space of chambers and cubicles to contemplate and study. Students being guided through PhD need to have their discussions without a cacophony of voices all around. Above all, the prestige of the professors demands this space, since they are not meant to jostle with their elbows in the overpopulated country that is India.

Neither are they to be inconvenienced by their colleagues. Each is an island of his/her own, living in a world of study and contemplation which doesn’t need anything beyond the barest human interactions. Collaboration and cooperation would be voluntary, to be initiated as and when two occupants of different chambers decided they wanted to talk or work. It would not be forced on them, for that would ruin the delicate mental equilibria needed for research. Hence, they needed distance from their fellow human beings, and emptiness created this distance.

And it was a permanent distance. You could walk across the emptiness, but you would be swimming in an ocean. One man, or two, or five, cannot break this emptiness. It seeps through the walls, through the windows and the neon lamps. It makes interactions brisk and business-like, cold and calculated. It makes you want to leave after your discussion is done. There is now warmth, no glow and no human chaos to draw you in, nor repel you. Instead, the machine repels you with its very emptiness. Where you have the greatest space is the place where you cannot stay.

But I’ve seen other universities. They did not abhor the light of the sun, nor the contact of human with human. In fact, Calcutta University dumps multiple professors in a single room, and asks them to share computers, shelves and even cooling solutions like fans. Air conditioning is almost absent except in the meeting room. Yet such sharing brings forth banter and chatting, and if you barge in on them, you’d almost inevitably find them having a good laugh amidst mountains of work. Do students stand around as they did in the PCR ? No, but there is no waiting room, nor the need to climb multiple staircases when moving from one professor to another. Going from one end of the hallway to the other pretty much sums up the faculty list, and you can do so while admiring the view of the National Library.

So yes, universities aren’t as open as colleges, and their needs are different. But they don’t have to be cold and artificial areas where human life stands isolated amidst a sea of emptiness. Perhaps they should ideally be – for the reasons outlined above – but they don’t have to be. And when such a change takes place in an area you already know and have grown fond of, it is especially jarring. Whatever the ideal, it is never pleasant to feel isolated and cold in a place you knew was once warm and full of life.

Presently, the isolation broke with one bubble moving quickly through the emptiness. The professor I’d been waiting for had arrived. My reverie shattered, I realized the mundane letter I wanted signed had flown across the room. Quickly retrieving it, I ran after him, up the stairs and across the mezzanine floor.  The footsteps were deafening, admonishing me for being too cocky for the empty machine. Minutes later, the letter signed, I was out into the sunlight, the heat, the grime and the cacophony again. And despite the promise of air-conditioning, I didn’t want to go back.

Anatomy of A Successful Student “Movement”

About a year and half ago, I found myself sitting in the CC-1 (Chair Car) coach of the Hazarduari Express, heading towards Krishnanagar. I was accompanying the chief guest and main speaker of a workshop to be held at our college. The man in question, despite being older than my father and with years of academic and administrative experience behind him, proved to be quite the chatting companion. As the train gathered pace after Barrackpore, our conversation moved to the then just-concluded movement in Jadavpur University. Knowing him to be a man of the “administration”, I ventured to point out that the entire movement had hardly helped the academic ambiance of the University, with classes being disrupted and students spending more time protesting than actually studying.

I’d expected a mild commentary on how student politics gone to seed was reaping a stormy harvest. Instead, I received a wry smile. He said, “Aritra, do you really believe this to be a students’ movement ? Would it have succeeded if it had ?” Now let’s rewind a bit. Anyone familiar with the history of the movement ostensibly sparked by the molestation of a girl student in a boys’ hostel would know that the students had been at the forefront from the very beginning. It had spawned a larger protest that led to street rallies attended by students (especially girl students) from the majority of South Kolkata colleges. Petitions, signature campaigns, sit-ins and even hunger strikes had become the order of the day. Eventually, the V-C had been “ousted”, leading to a “victory” for the movement.

The reason I put the words “ousted” and “victory” in quotes is because of what he explained thereafter. I forget the exact words, but the crux of his argument went thus – a students’ movement would never have succeeded without the connivance of the faculty. The faculty, in fact, had instigated the movement because the V-C had chosen to remove a few HODs and Directors from their positions. These HODs and Directors held on to their positions in order to remain at the top of patron-client networks involving other faculty, students and research scholars. By trying to break this quid pro quo, the V-C had stirred a hornet’s nest. The result was that a movement demanding security for female students had turned into a “revolution” that achieved the V-C’s resignation, and nothing more. The girl was forgotten the moment the interested parties were sure their positions were secure from what they saw as administrative caprice.

It took me the remainder of the train ride to digest what I’d learnt. There’s a realist political theorist in all of us, and mine was screaming “Duh! There goes your ideology and high esteem of the students.” The voice was right of course, since without some amount of administrative support, the movement would never have succeeded. If every rule against students is imposed rigidly, it becomes a lot harder to effect a movement of the scale and intensity seen in Jadavpur.

But the wisdom I received during that train ride has been tempered with many events since. Most notable among them have been the movement in Presidency against capricious fee hikes and attendance rules, and the recently concluded one in Medical College against refusal of new boarding facilities to senior male students. Note that in each case, the students received far less support from their teachers than their peers in Jadavpur.

So what does it take to make a movement succeed ? Is it necessary to have the support of at least a section of the faculty, who will overlook bunked classes and missed deadlines at the least, and major conflicts with the police at worst, for their own vested interests ? Marxist historians talk of autonomy of the subaltern space, which has its own language. Students’ movements are quasi-subaltern, since they use the language of the ruling class but invert it without becoming merely a bourgeois reaction. They possess their own autonomy, created in defiance to and not always as simply a reaction to, administrative fiat. Yet they are at the core of the structure instead of being in the periphery like the true subaltern, and hence represent a fleeting autonomy that cannot truly count on any foundations of class or social structure to ensure its survival.

In my own student days, far before I had become aware of such complex terminologies, this was made patent to me in the way seniors reacted to ongoing movements, and passouts simply looked the other way. Some continued to voice support, but made it clear that as employees or scholars, their priorities were different and they would not find it easy to openly support the student fraternity, even if in their heart of hearts, they wished to. Hence, the autonomy remained with the student as long as she was the student, theoretically detached from the capitalist system through the cobwebs of state sponsored education, and she gave it up in exchange for a social role involving productivity within the capitalist system. Naturally, the affinities of each batch of students varied, and so “students’ movements” tended to vary year by year, semester by semester, even month by month.

But if we teachers’ selfish support is to be considered a necessary condition for the success of a students’ movement, is the student truly autonomous in any domain ? Is she not simply a pawn in the patron-client relationships that characterize all of academia, a puppet to be pulled by a string as and when the professor desires ? In other words, isn’t the space she occupies hegemonized by the professors, the equivalent of the bourgeois leaders in the subaltern schemata ?

I’ve pondered over this question for the better part of the year, and to some extent, I surrendered to the lack of student autonomy. It is inevitable since students are after all defined by their position as recipients of education. If they risk being stripped of their position, they risk losing their social role and status. Professors are vital to the retention and validation of this social role, and hence, a separate tribal autonomy can never exist since the student was neither autonomous to begin with nor was she able to carve out any space that by definition would be beyond the domain of a recipient of education, because the moment she did so, she ceased being a student.

But students still do protest, and they still do succeed. And when they do, the levels of teacher support varies considerably. Even intellectuals, otherwise so vocal on issues of national politics, turn taciturn and make noises possessing less coherence than horns in a traffic jam. So what makes them succeed ? What I’ve concluded is that, just as the actors themselves are important, so is the structure.

This structure is the university. You’d have noticed that the nature of the movements varies considerably across universities. Whereas the most successful student movement in the University of Calcutta centered on simply getting more marks, the movements in unitary universities such as Presidency, Jadavpur or JNU have taken on more radical and indeed more intellectual dimensions. From questioning the state to the failure of the administration and social justice mechanisms, they have raised fundamental questions that have more often than not resulted in deep discomfiture for the authorities themselves. These authorities, inevitably, have had to related to a state seen as “the other” by the students, been pushed into a tight moral corner and then have had to capitulate before courts or prolonged hunger strikes. In essence, as in results, you feel the protests of unitary universities have been markedly different from those of affiliating universities and ordinary colleges (Medical College itself is an exception, though one with a fair amount of autonomy itself).

How do I draw this linkage ? To begin with, let us look at revolutions in the classical sense of the term. They are political events, essentially linked with homogenous populations with a heightened sense of solidarity based on shared culture and language, and against a single focus, a single “other”. In other words, both the “for” and “against” attained a degree of unity, despite their internal contradictions.

I’d argue that there is a parallel with unitary universities. Unitary universities have a single and concentrated focus of power – the V-C. He, along with the Deans and Registrar, are in far greater control of the university than their counterparts in affiliating universities, where teacher unions, autonomous colleges and institutes all have their own power loci. In other words, it is far easier to influence the V-C of a unitary university because he is limited within the university itself and cannot draw upon legitimate support from outside the campus itself. (Legitimate being the key word here, since the state support is by definition illegitimate.)

On the other hand, the student body studies within one (or at most two campuses) and is therefore able to follow a single set of leaders, ideals, unions, and campus modalities. Over time, a certain homogeneity of culture emerges, which flattens inequalities on one hand and raises expectations of social justice on the other. This coalescing of what would otherwise have been different colleges and their own departments, leads to a far greater cohesion among students as far as actions are concerned. The knowledge that their “other” is a simple target (rather than a complex and far-flung bureaucracy with multiple centers of power and stakeholders) further cements this cohesion.

Thirdly, there is a degree of isolation that these universities can afford. This is initially created by the faculty to shield themselves from the intrusive and colonizing tendencies of the state. But over time, it creates an environment that feels sui generis even when it really isn’t. This creates a belief that the unitary university is a special place, and its ideals are indeed out of the ordinary. This sense of specialness is critical to the mobilizing of students who would otherwise have been mute spectators or indifferent observers. This sense of patriotism towards the institution, whether justified by the history of it or not, further fuels solidarity among the students and fires their imagination. Under the right leadership, this sense of patriotism becomes a clarion call to maintain what was, retain what is good and remove the ever-evil state power from infringing upon the former two.

Hence, like the classic nationalist movements, there are 3 main ingredients – a single source of power that can be targeted within the realm, a unified opposition (temporarily, I know I know) and a structure which prides itself on its uniqueness and to a degree, separation from other powers.

Now why can’t ordinary colleges, or affiliating universities, claim the same characteristics ? For starters, the centre of power is very diffuse. Take any affiliating university, and you will find a veritable cobweb of officials, many of whom stay in different campuses and are affiliated to different Schools. Secondly, the teaching fraternity itself, including the part that is in power, is very large and internally divided. It is almost impossible to take on such a heterogenous group, especially since they all belong to different colleges or schools, and may not interact with each other at all.

The students, on the other hand, have little unity beyond what is provided by the umbrella students’ body of the ruling party. These students are more likely to look to their own General Secretary for help than any larger organization. Given that the dynamics differ widely from college to college, unity needed for pressure tactics to work are simply not present. You could argue that the clash over marks in CU was an exception. It was, but it only showed that the students would coalesce around what mattered the most to them (marks from exams they didn’t give well), and nothing else.

Thirdly, affiliating colleges are deeply embedded in the fabric of politics of the state and the country. Since the ruling party basically controls the student unions and has a large section of supporters among the teachers as well, the sense of isolation is simply not present, even if we find vestiges of pride in some areas.

Now let us juxtapose the question of teacher pressure on these two differing scenarios. In unitary universities, entrance tests and their modalities are jealously guarded in the name of quality. Quality there may or may not be, but it definitely ensures that the students who come in have a decent amount of knowledge and perhaps a slight ideological bent of mind as well. This ensures that they can easily become part of the “campus politics”, which as my companion suggested, could simply be strings being pulled by one section of teachers against another. Hence, when a section uses this campus politics to its advantage – or straight up instigates it – the students have the necessary linkages, ideology and feeling of the need to stick together, to maintain a united front. This front mobilizes in favour of the faculty concerned, and the teachers look on benevolently as their ends are met by their foot soldiers.

But what if the teachers don’t support them ? In these cases, I’d argue, the student still possesses the linkages between themselves (community), ideology (language) and fellow-feeling that is necessary to maintain a space of quasi-autonomy within the power structures of the university. It is true that a section of students would bow to pressure (applied through threats of poor marking, attendance troubles, etc.) to accede and withdraw. But even if this segment is colonized and rendered inert by the colonizing power (the faculty and the administration) the remainder continue their struggle. Eventually, they do attract enough support to force a section of the “intellectuals” to support them, thereby making it harder for the faculty to maintain adverse pressure. Eventually, the “authority” capitulates and the movement is withdrawn.

In ordinary colleges and affiliating universities, however, entrance exams are typically not held or are simple MCQ affairs. These bring in students who have simply obtained good marks or managed to mug up enough to clear the exam. They seldom possess the knowledge required for clear political views, and come from a very diverse set of backgrounds. It is never easy for faculty to mould such a diverse grouping into anything usable by themselves. Even when they do try, they find themselves to be possessing little actual power, since the university and the state monitor and control everything to a very high degree. The result is that the students develop a far more transactional relationship, preferring to simply keep their heads low, get the degrees and then search for jobs. Anything beyond this is difficult to conceive unless they threaten the degrees themselves (eg. the large number of people failing in General subjects as a result of changes in rules).

Hence, when the teachers want to run a movement (assuming they’re united, which they never are), they find the students’ union to be an unreliable vehicle of their opinion. Students simply know the teachers don’t have the power to enforce anything that might harm them, and don’t care enough about either the university or any burning issues to put themselves on the line. The result is that college and affiliating university teachers have far less influence, even if they wanted to exert it.

The reverse is also true. If the students sought to start a movement and achieved union backing, there is very little a teacher, a principal or a V-C can do beyond calling up the minister and asking for help. For movements with political backing, the movement might die out with a minister’s whip, but if it’s autonomous, it’d take longer (though these movements are very rare). Never would you hear of a police charge or suchlike in a college or affiliating university on issues beyond anything related to marks or campus fighting (not politics in the sense of discussions, but actual physical fighting). This is because once the head phones the required higher authority, diktats ensure most movements (which are led by this or that party) die out. What remain gradually take on other forms beyond the college, with the faculty remaining mute spectators.

Thus, to return to the point I’d made in the beginning – teachers’ attitudes are important and necessary for movements to quickly gain momentum and then keeping moving forward despite external and internal pressure. But teachers’ attitudes are coloured by and limited by the nature of the institution. The institution decides whether the student body is united, whether there is isolation or embeddedness, how strong the administration can be and how easy it is to assault, and what impact, if any, the teachers have on the course of events. If the structure is favourable, the movement is powerful. If it is not, the movement, regardless of where it happens, will be a flop.

Moral of the story, thus, is if you want student protests to die out, just stop the public unitary universities and prevent new ones from coming up. Problems related to student politics will solve themselves.

India and The Rohingya Problem – Sense with Sensitivity

It seems the favourite pastime of the average South East Asian regime is to go after one or another of its minorities, and while doing so, try to avoid international media attention. Whether it is the treatment of non-Bhumiputera groups by the Indonesian and Malayasian governments, or the treatment meted out to the Karen by Myanmar, or the treatment of Tamils by the Sri Lankan government (technically South Asia I know), there always seems to be some minority in need of being championed in the high towers of the UN. In each case, the reasons are different, and the contexts are complex. But the end result is a stream of refugees who inevitably end up on the shores of some other country, including those that implemented discriminatory policies against their own minorities. This is followed by some heart-wrenching narratives that seek to shore up support for the persecuted minority, so that the refugee burden can be shared with other “like-minded” countries.

Of course, this isn’t a solution, simply because the regimes that enforce such migrations through acts of omission and commission are seldom reformed. The bhumiputera policies implemented by the Malayasian government remain in force today, continuing inter-ethnic tensions between the majority Malays and the hitherto socially significant Chinese and Indian communities. In Myanmar, the persecution of the Karen brought about a bloody civil war, but little else. The junta didn’t change, nor did the policies. Now the junta has superficially given power over to Aun San Suu Kyi, but the internal dynamics of policy formulation remain the same. Indeed, if anything, the recent Rohingya crisis only serves to underline how meaningful change at the policy level is just not forthcoming in this part of the world. Instead, we are awash in propaganda campaigns that focus on whichever social group is being currently hounded.

This group, as of now, is the Rohingya. They’ve been dubbed the “most persecuted people in the world”, which would surely bring a wry smile to those who were till very recently living under the oppressive rule of the Taliban, or ISIS, or the various drug cartels that virtually control parts of LatAm. But we’re not here to compare and grade human suffering, since the fact of suffering is patent enough. That the Rohingya have been discriminated against and treated as pariah is not for anyone to debate, save by lack of common sense. Naturally, this has led to another propaganda campaign – and a counter-propaganda campaign by the Myanmar government – both of whom seek to place the blame on the opposite party. This would have been fine as long as, like the Karen and other groups that preceded them, the Rohingya had not ended up in India. But given that that is precisely what is happening (more on this later), we need to take a long hard look at what really is going on, and what should be our response.

First of all, let’s look at the vexed question of the origin of the Rohingya. The Rohingya claim that they arrived from parts of India long before the coming of the British, and had been settled in the regions today known as Rakhine and historically known as Arakan, for centuries. It is true that the Arakan rulers tended to maintain relations with the Sultans of Bengal, and even accepted vassal status during the 15th Century. They employed Muslims, who were skilled in statecraft, and they and their retainers lived in the modern Rakhine region since then. But as historians have pointed out, this group would form only a fraction of the total number of Rohingyas today, even if we take at face value the claim that the direct descendants of those who had lived during the Sultanate were still living as Rohingya in the region.

Much more important was the depopulation of the region by the Konbaung invasion of Arakan during the 18th Century. When the British eventually conquered the region, they sought to use the fertile valleys to enhance their tax-collection abilities. This could only be achieved if there was sufficient labour. Workers were brought from neighbouring areas to work the fields. These were usually Bengali Muslims, coming from a region already overpopulated, to a region which was then underpopulated. Over time, their number grew and they began to demand benefits from the British government, something their religious compatriots in other parts of India were also doing at around the same time. This alarmed the native Rakhine and other groups, who were Buddhists and therefore saw the growing Muslim population as a direct demographic threat to their claim over resources in the region. It didn’t help that the Bengali Muslim populace has historically had a higher population growth rate than the Rakhine, and this meant that their proportion grew steadily during the 19th Century. By the beginning of the 20th Century, conflict over land was becoming inevitable.

The Second World War and the Japanese occupation of the region proved to be a key event in the history of the Rohingya and the Rakhine. The Rohingya, by virtue of getting preferential treatment due to the traditional British policy of favouring minorities, strongly supported the British. The Japanese supported the Buddhists. The result was escalating conflict between the British-supported Rohingya V-Force (Volunteer Force) and the Buddhist groups organized with Japanese help. The British had hoped to use the Rohingya as a buffer shield against Japanese aggression. However, the sectarian nature of the conflict ensured that the V-Force used British arms to attack Rakhine villages, leading to an endless cycle of violence.

This violence convinced the Rohingya at large that they needed their own state. Demands for a separate region of northern Arakan were being raised since the early days of the 20th Century. They now merged with the Pakistan movement, only to be eventually disappointed by Jinnah, who had no wish of picking a fight with the Burmese government at a time when his moth-eaten state was just coming out of its cocoon. Thus disappointed, the Rohingya sent representatives to the Burmese Constituent Assembly and Parliament, demanding from U Nu recognition of the Rohingya as a separte group and a separate state for themselves. As one would expect of a Buddhist prime minister in a Buddhist-dominated country, U Nu largely ignored them. What hope remained of a mutually satisfactory solution ended with the coming of the military junta in 1962.

Since 1962, the junta has systematically ensured that the Rohingya are not allowed to become a political force in the Arakan region. This included denying them citizenship, access to government jobs and representation in the few representative organs that remained. Pogroms were organized against them, leading to cyclical exodii to neighbouring countries. This led the Rohingya to support practically every anti-junta movement there could be, whether it was the 8888 movement or Suu Kyi in the 1992 elections. This cycle continues today, even though the junta has relinquished formal power to Suu Kyi and a democratic process.

As the above narrative makes clear, the Rohingya are essentially ethnic Bengali Muslims who had settled in less populated lands of modern-day Myanmar, with a small portion of them going back further (and this being a matter of dispute). Their language, for all the talk of dialects, is Bengali, and their intellectuals maintained close links with the Muslim Bengali intellectuals during the Partition movement, and even after. In fact, this had led to the formation of an Arakanese version of the Muslim League in the 1940s. Their numbers, having grown exponentially, poses a threat to the demographic stability of the Arakan region, which has led indigenous groups like the Rakhine to protest, and then take up arms against them. The Myanmarese government, for its part, realized that this group was one that could not be assimilated within the logic of either Burmese nationalism (given their ties to Eastern Bengal) or Buddhist nationalism (they were Muslims). Hence, rather than keep a growing populace, they sought to extirpate them and disperse them to other regions. Dump their own perceived problem on others, in other words.

This has led to systematic persecution of the Rohingya. Beginning with denial into the officialdom of the junta state, this has reached the point of physical torture, rape, arson and other forms of assault on the Rohingya. The Rohingya, for their part, having exhausted options for peaceful protest, taken to the militancy. As with other Muslim groups who face persecution, their natural harbor has been the Islamist world of jihad. Ever since the 1980s, groups like the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) have had jihadist links. Even recently, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) has shown itself to be a keen follower of the diktats of jihad, attacking both the Buddhists and the minuscule number of Hindus living in the region. Here, it should be pointed out, that the Hindus, like the Rohingya themselves, are a legacy of colonial rule. To attack a similarly placed social group makes no sense when seen from an ethnic minority’s viewpoint. But it does make sense when seen from a jihadist perspective.

It has been argued, with merit, that a persecuted people will fight back at a point of time. Democracy, when it functions properly, ensures that such problems are discussed and solved, and if not, brought before the public forum through protests and pressure groups. Myanmarese democracy, in the version that currently exists, has clearly failed the Rohingya. The Rohingya now want nothing to do with Myanmar’s democracy, and everything with finding a new home, and fighting back against the military and removing all except themselves from the Northern Arakan region. This has the potential of becoming a second civil war. If it does, it would ensure a swift demise for the democratic mechanism currently taking roots in the country, and further persecution and reprisals. This would produce more refugees, which is not good news for any of Myanmar’s neighbours.

Having established the ethnicity of the Rohingyas, their persecution at the hands of the Buddhist establishment and their attempts at fighting or fleeing, it is now time to turn to what India as a country should do. The most obvious answer to this would be to put diplomatic pressure on Myanmar to come to a solution. This is to pretend that India isn’t already doing what it can, or hasn’t in the past tried to influence the country. In the context of south Asian relations, Myanmar’s relations with India can be termed cordial, and while it may seem that the Indian state may be doing less than it should, one should remember that diplomatic pressure is probably not going to work anyway. Myanmar, like any small country with a xenophobic trait, is extremely sensitive to the Rohingya issue and did not think twice before bombing the Chinese border over the expulsion of groups of Chinese from the country. As for its non-Rohingya Indian populace, they have had to leave the country much earlier.

Hence, instead of doing anything for the Rohingya, any pressure on India’s part risks pushing Myanmar into the waiting arms of China, further isolating India in her immediate neighborhood. Hence, if Sushma Swaraj’s visit in March to Myanmar (and Modi’s in September last year) don’t yield anything beyond platitudes about how India believes the Rohingya would do best in Myanmar and there should be socio-economic development, don’t be surprised. You’re basically looking in the wrong place at the wrong time.

Given how this cyclical crisis isn’t going away (Myanmar has done nothing to fix its internal xenophobic traits, and has promised to take back only a minuscule number of Rohingya, who anyway do not wish to return), it should be worthwhile to look at what the crisis means for India. On the diplomatic level, India risks a full-scale spat between Bangladesh, which supports the Rohingya but shies away from accepting that they’re ethnic Bangladeshis, and Myanmar, which calls the Rohingya “Bengalis” and wants to send them back by the truckload into Bangladesh. Any spat could lead to the intervention of China, which would allow India’s arch-enemy another front in its attempt to seclude India. If Nepal is anything to go by, India should seek to ensure that any trouble, within or without a neighbouring state, doesn’t become an international issue.

But the Rohingya aren’t just a diplomatic problem. At places like Hili and Benapole in West Bengal and parts of Tripura, they’ve appeared at the border posts demanding entry. Note that these aren’t borders between India and Myanmar, but between India and Bangladesh. This naturally suggests that for all the wailing the Bangladeshi government is doing at the moment, they’re as interested as Myanmar in passing on the problem rather than solving it. When the Indian government sought to send them back, vested interests filed a case in the Supreme Court demanding (on legally dubious grounds) that India could not send the Rohingya back. The case in ongoing in the Supreme Court, with news of Rohingya atrocities against the Hindus bolstering the state’s case that the Rohingya present a security threat to India, alongside a demographic one.

It should be instructive at this point to see what the state’s arguments are. Firstly, it has argued that the Rohingya would affect the demographic makeup of the country. This may seem to be an overcautious approach given that the official UN figures for the number of refugees currently in the country hover in the range of 40,000. However, we have seen how a poor and largely illiterate populace like the Rohingya can grow in numbers, which contributed to the land problems in Rakhine in the first place. India, with its highly polarized communitarian social structure (which some would call communal), is sensitive to even fractional changes in the relative abundance of different religions. One can argue that this stems from the fierce conflicts over land in an overpopulated country, but we cannot change that. There are chances that as the numbers of the Rohingya grow, they will be polarized on issues of resource control to an extent where they become a political force by themselves.

This force, it should be remembered, wouldn’t exist in a vacuum. The recent events involving the killing of Hindus shows that the community has already been infiltrated by extremist groups pledging loyalty to jihadist outfits. In India, there is no dearth of sleeper cells that can further estrange them and create a homegrown security threat, an Indian version of ARSA. It is in this context that the government raised the security issue.

Now it has been argued that India has accepted other refugees in the past. Even if we set aside the flow of refugees into Punjab, and belatedly, into Bengal, at the time of partition, we can think of the coming of the Dalai Lama and then the influx that followed Operation Searchlight in the 1970s. In each case however, it should be remembered that the populace had a significant number of Hindus or Buddhists. The Hindus, by virtue of being a majority, managed to assimilate the newcomers, though this too caused significant problems for the state of West Bengal. The Buddhists, on the other hand, being a minority in the pan-Indian sense, posed little threat to demographic change beyond the immediate confines of Dharamsala.

The Rohingya case is different. They form part of the Bengali Muslim community for all practical purposes, and their influx would naturally bolster the number of the Muslim community in Bengal, and in India in general. Whether they are accepted whole-heartedly by the local Muslim populace is a different question. For the pan-Indian perspective though, this has the possibility of producing a demographic imbalance that could quickly spiral into communal violence. Given the growing communalization of politics under the NDA-II government, it is simply unwise to play with demographics even if it means helping a group that is truly in need of aid.

But can India do nothing ? For the most part, the answer is yes. However, India should not be averse to taking in limited numbers through a vetting process that allows us the best of the community in terms of what they can contribute to Indian society and economy. This involves creating vetting processes similar to those that exist in European countries, the crucial difference being that we should never commit to accepting a set number of refugees like Germany did. Instead, we should process cases for asylum based on individual requirements, backgrounds, criminal records, education and skills. This would naturally exclude a number from India, but I would argue that it is not in India’s interest to take in more unskilled farmers and poor labour, since India already has an abundance of those.

What would become of the remaining Rohingya ? Some of them are finding their way in through human trafficking channels. This must be stopped, to ensure the dignity of the humans themselves and also to prevent the same demographic imbalance from occurring through informal channels. The BSF and other agencies should have a clear mandate to search, arrest and throw out all Rohingya in border areas, and also in regions far away from the border, in the interests of the safety and the demographic balance of the country.

And what of the remainder, who are denied entry either formally or informally ? Indonesia and Malaysia have taken a sympathetic approach to the Rohingya problem, accepting a number into their own countries. Bangladesh, however, would perhaps be the most ideal destination. Not only was Bangladesh carved out with the express purpose of giving a homeland to the Bengali-speaking Muslims of eastern India, it claims to actually care for the Rohingya. Hence, both from an ethnic and a religious perspective, it is best that Bangladesh take the onus of accepting the majority of Rohingya refugees and integrating them within its society. India can support and even subsidize this process, as long as the country promises not to push the Rohingya into India through formal or informal channels.

By way of conclusion, it has to be admitted that it is hard to look on without acting as a humanitarian disaster unfolds near one’s country. This, in an age when rightist governments are actively talking of throwing out refugees and instituting travel bans on Muslim countries. India, with its diverse populace, needs to be sympathetic to the plight of the Rohingyas and do what it can to diplomatically solve the problem, but ensure that her concern doesn’t end up creating political, religious or demographic challenges for future generations. In other words, India must be sensible while being sensitive.